American Literature

Although Harper Lees To Kill a Mockingbird presents a number of themes, such as racism and social class in the American south, it is the coming of age of Jem and Scout that provides perhaps the most powerful theme in the entire novel.  The theme that arises from this coming of age of Jem and Scout relates to the essential nature of human beings more specifically, the novel explores in a very dramatic way whether people are essentially good and just or whether people are instead fundamentally evil and disinterested in objective notions of justice.  As children, under the guidance of their principled and very moral father, both Jem and Scout are compelled to endure events that test their existing beliefs, their faith in their fathers teachings, and their very perception and understanding of the nature of human behavior.  This essay will discuss how these characters reacted to events in ways that reinforced certain character traits and how they changed or developed in certain respects.
    More than any other character, in terms of viewing life and people in new ways, Scout functions in the novel as a sort of benchmark against which other characters can be analyzed.  This is because Scout is presented as a remarkably independent young girl who refuses to conform to any social standards except those which are espoused and taught to her by her father.  This independence manifests itself early on in the form of Scout forsaking feminine styles of dress or feminine interests and simply doing what makes her feel happy and comfortable.  She recognizes that she was different than other girls and notes in her narration that Aunt Alexandra was fanatical on the subject of my attire. I could not possibly hope to be a lady if I wore breeches when I said I could do nothing in a dress, she said I wasnt supposed to be doing anything that required pants. (Lee 85)  This is an important quotation because Scout establishes her independence of mind and her confidence to behave in a manner that is consistent with her interests and personal beliefs.  She seems to have derived this independence from Atticus, her father, and it is a character trait which persists throughout the novel.  Although she is taunted and subjected to an extraordinary variety of bitter experiences as a result of her fathers decision to defend Tom Robinson, she manages to maintain her independent mind and her belief that people can do good things if they try to understand other people better.  Indeed, at the very end of the novel Scout supports this type of persistent independence when she recounts while standing on Boos porch that understanding demands stepping into another persons shoes and understanding life from a different point of view.  Scout stays the same to the extant that she continues to think independently, that she continues to adhere to her fathers ideals, and that she believes that people have the inner capacity to be good.  On the other hand, she learns that people are often petty and hypocritical and her younger notion that all people were good is shattered.  Her coming of age story is about the loss of innocence in this respect, life experiences that destroy nave views of people and the world, and yet she still manages to remain fairly hopeful that people can be good.
    Sadly, Jem does not develop quite as smoothly as Scout and this contrast represents how the loss of innocence can lead to cynicism and a loss of faith in people and the world rather than a renewed hope.  Jem functions in many respects as a weaker version of Atticus ideals and this manifests itself as a weaker version of Scout.  Jem, for instance, tends to conform more to expectations specifically, he dresses and behaves like a boy and he has more difficulty than both Atticus and Scout in dealing with social criticism and social ostracism.  He even teases and criticizes Scout at times for not conforming to expectations because she does not think or behave like a typical southern girl.  It is not that Jem does not admire his fathers ideals and principles, for the novel suggests that he does, but unlike Scout he seems more traumatized by the racial and social divisions.  He seems more constrained by social conventions even though he seems fairly proud of his own social class and peers.  Indeed, at the end of the novel Scout sadly notes that
The summer that had begun so long ago ended, another summer had taken its place, and a fall, and Boo Radley had come out.... I was to think of these days many times -- of Jem, and Dill and Boo Radley, and Tom Robinson ... and Atticus. He would be in Jems room all night. And he would be there when, Jem waked up in the morning.  HYPERLINK httpwww.questiaschool.comPM.qstaod5000461052(Lee quoted in Shackelford 110)

    The clear implication is that while Scout has decided to view the coming of a new summer as her figurative devotion to justice, Jem is less optimistic and more traumatized by their coming of age experiences.  Whether Jem will ever be able to transcend the racism and the social constraints is questionable Scout on the other hand, boldly declares her firm belief in the principles and ideals articulated by her admirable father.  They become her principles, too.

    In conclusion, both of these characters continue to wish that life could be simple.  They recognize through painful experiences, however, that ideals and realities can be very different.  Scout deals with social hypocrisy by dedicating herself to keeping an open mind and trying to understand people more comprehensively Jem, on the other hand, seems as if he may concede his fathers values in an effort to blend into society.  This is the main change in the story with Scout defiantly maintaining her independent mind and Jem seeming to become more dependent on social expectations even if they are hypocritical.

One of the rather consistent critical comments which has been made in reference to Arthur Millers Death of a Salesman is that the play is difficult to categorize.  Even the author mentioned in interviews that many of his themes and political points were implied rather than explicitly presented.  Indeed, As Miller himself has said,  Death of a Salesman is a slippery play to categorize because nobody in it stops to make a speech objectively stating the great issues which I believe it embodies. HYPERLINK httpwww.questiaschool.comPM.qstaod98104124(Bloom 47)  This statement by the author is illuminating.  It is illuminating because Miller admits that the play was intended to embody certain overarching issues and that the incorporation of these issues was not presented in terms of objective speeches by the plays characters.  The dominant theme must therefore depend on a more careful examination of the plays text.  This essay will argue that the plays dominant theme was the fallibility of the American Dream and that there are tragic consequences that attend the type of uncritical faith in such a romantic ideal that is too frequently unrealized in the lives of many Americans.  In support of this thesis, this essay will examine the allure of the American Dream as it was presented in Death of a Salesman, how Willy Loman took the existence of the American Dream for granted, and how this misplaced faith resulted in personal tragedy.
    As an initial matter, it is important to establish that Willy Loman believed in a certain notion of the American Dream and he further believed that he would be rewarded for his faith.  He essentially believed that a person would be financially rewarded if that person worked hard, was well-liked, and conformed very precisely to social expectations.  HYPERLINK httpwww.questiaschool.comPM.qstaod97369317(Otten 281)  Even though it would have been better for Willy and his family if he was transferred to New York, for example, Willy refuses to request a transfer, stating that Im the New England man. Im vital in New England. HYPERLINK httpwww.questiaschool.comPM.qstaod5935408(Bentley 636)  He is willing to travel for his company despite the fact that he is older and despite the fact that he has seniority.  His belief that he is vital to the New England sales team, which is patently false, reinforces the notion that Willy truly believes that his dedication and devotion to the company will be rewarded.  For Willy, in short, the allure of the mythical American Dream was a belief in financial security and secure employment.  This belief set him up for a tragic downfall.
This uncritical devotion to this notion of the American Dream, that anyone can be financially secure and successful if they conform and are well-liked, is further illustrated in the relationship between Willy and Biff.  Because Biff does not share his fathers convictions, for example, Willy criticizes his son.  At one point, talking to his wife and refusing to apologize to Biff for his criticism, Willy states with respect to Biff that Not finding yourself at the age of thirty-four is a disgrace and that Biff is a lazy bum HYPERLINK httpwww.questiaschool.comPM.qstaod5935409(Bentley 637)   The real reason for the criticism is the fact that Biff does not believe in the American Dream in the same way as his father.  Willy therefore views anyone, even a beloved son, who views the American Dream with suspicion with contempt.  It was Willy, in effect, who most purely represented the foolishness of dedicating his life so completely and so uncritically to an illusory set of wishes.  Other characters, such as Biff and Willys brother, did not subscribe to this notion of the American Dream.  It was this total dependence, based on the aforementioned set of beliefs, which would lead to Willys downfall.
Rather then protecting himself in other ways, such as developing new skills or joining members of his family in a private business venture, Willy allowed himself to be deluded until the very end of the play.  Biff tried to warn him about the dangerous consequences at one point, stating to Willy You were never anything but a hard-working drummer who landed in the ash can like all the rest of them and shortly thereafter that Will you take that phony dream and burn it before something happens HYPERLINK httpwww.questiaschool.comPM.qstaod5935495(Bentley 723)   Something did happen, which was Millers main intention.  Willy cannot deal with the fact that his entire life had been dedicated to an American Dream that turned out to be more of an illusion than a real social bargain.  He killed himself, unable to deal with his own shame, and his own sparsely attended funeral testified to his fundamental insignificance in America. 
In the final analysis, the dominant theme in Death of a Salesman relates to the folly of believing in an American Dream that promises financial security and stable employment.  This is not meant to suggest that goals cannot be achieved, for they certainly can be achieved, but that whether one attains these goals is in no way guaranteed.  More, as the play illustrates, the meaning of life is about more than working to the beat of a drummer or being well-liked.  All Americans, particularly in the current historical circumstances, would be well-advised to read this play with rapt attention.

A critic has very rightly remarked about Williams, In his writing, in his eternal defense of those who think differently, who have different ways of being, Tennessee Williams represents a far higher morality, a far higher and more developed humanity, than do those who accuse him of immorality and lack of faith in humanity.
WILLIAMS BELIEFS -
Words are often what we want to express, what we want the world to know, what we ourselves want to realize about our own selves. This holds true for Williams. His plays, short stories, poems, all signify his beliefs, culture, faith and religion. That he was different is evident from his works. The tensions between sexuality, society, and Christianity were a part of Williams drama, signifying their presence in his life as well. He had spent most of his life as a wanderer, as an outcast. Nonetheless, his works give away the same.
THE THEME OF CRUELTY -
In James Njorneboes words, Williams fundamental theme is cruelty in three variants The cruelty of human beings (the masses cruelty to the individual), the cruelty of nature (in the animal-organic processes themselves), and the cruelty of God (as the one responsible for the whole cosmic-metaphysical system of cruelty, hunger, decay and death). That his plays to a rather high degree are full of overwrought, ruined and supersensitive people is a logical result of the fact that Tennessee Williams own meeting with reality, as seen through his writings, has been one big breakdown.
There are no good or bad people, Tennessee wrote. Some are a little better or a little worse, but all are activated more by misunderstanding than malice. Blindness to what is going on in each others hearts . . . nobody sees anybody truly but all through the flaws of their own egos. That is the way we all see each other in life. Vanity, fear, desire, competition--all such distortions within our own egos--conditions our vision of those in relation to us...
UNDERSTANDING Cat on a Hot Tin Roof
In a play like Cat on a Hot Tin Roof the theme is about morality, sexuality and how the society influences the same the protagonist of the play rejects his homosexual friend as the society influences him to think that their relationship might be an erotic one. This however forces the friend to commit suicide. This makes the protagonist rethink about himself as he gives in to the collective morality and the objections of people around him. As Sartre would have said, he gives in to the others and hence, becomes the murderer. His futility is well established in the following dialogue
 Look at Gooper. Look at what hes become. Is that what you wanted him to be And look at me. You put it very well indeed. Im a thirty-year-old kid, and pretty soon Im gonna be a fifty-year-old kid. I dont know what to believe in. Now whats the good of livin if youve got nothin to believe in Theres gotta be some, some purpose in life, some meanin. Look at me. For the sake of God, look at me before its too late. For once in your life, look at me as I really am. Look at me. Im a failure. Im a drunk. On my own in the open market, Im not worth the price of a decent burial.
The above words also depict Williams own feelings since it is known that Williams relationship with his own father was a sour one.
    Williams thoughts about institutionalized religion and public approach to churches and priests were very clear. They can be well traced in his plays. This he very clearly elucidates from the character of Revered Tooker in Cat in a Hot Tin Roof.
UNDERSTANDING SUDDENLY LAST SUMMER
Tennessee has been quoted I have had a life of required endurance, a life of clawing and scratching along a sheer surface and holding on tight with raw fingers to every inch of rock higher than the one caught hold of before. We see, Big Daddy as a preacher who is full of axioms and preaching. He says, Life is important. Theres nothing else to hold on onto.
Suddenly Last Summer continues the same, but in a different way in the form of a dazzlingly clear and cool analysis of our Western cultural crisis. The crowds murder of the individual is not lacking here either the protagonist, who does not appear in the play at all, is killed on the street by a flock of half-grown boys in a southern land. He was a poet, and his production consists in his writing one poem a year as he travels around the world with his millionaire mother, to squeeze all the refinement and pleasure out of life which they are both still capable of doing.
In its own way Suddenly Last Summer is Tennessee Williams most sinister play it too explores a character, good and healthy on the verge of encountering madness.
The image of the man who is killed by the flock of boys is enhanced by the fact that he himself collaborates in the murder, but also by another image which sets its stamp on the play the account of the birds who eat the newly-hatched turtles alive And the birds are naturally without guilt in their cruelty they are merely a part of nature, but part of a large nature, of an evil cosmos. These birds are in turn a vision of GodGod is evil. He has created this world of suffering and cruelty. Of course this is not Tennessee Williams conclusion That God is evil. It exists as a dread, as a possibility for an oversensitive person who in his writing is deeply engaged with the problem of evil in general. Williams pain is the pain of seeing, suffering at the sight of others sufferings.
It is sex without love that results in the catharsis of Sebastian in Suddenly Last Summer it is sex without love that drives Brick and Maggie apart. In fact, sex is a very big theme or motif in every play of Williams. In Suddenly Last Summer, Williams portrayal of the brother-sister incest has huge autobiographical overtones. Williams plays suggest that he strongly believes that the only way to get at each other is through sexual act. A stark difference to this thought is however shown in Shannon  Hanna Jelkes encounter in The Night of the Iguana.
UNDERSTANDING the Night of the Iguana -
In Hannahs words, Shanons problem, is the oldest one in the world  the need to believe in something or someone  almost anyone  almost anythingsomething..I have discovered something to believe inBroken gates between people so that they can reach each other, even if its just for the night only.
To quote a sentence from The Night of the IguanaWhen the Mexican painter Siqueiros did his portrait of the American poet Hart Crane he had to paint him with closed eyes because he couldnt paint his eyes openthere was too much suffering in them and he couldnt paint it. A critic very correctly notes, The problem is not just that the world is cruel, evil on an individual plane it is also this What is the person to do who feels not only his own pain, but also others How can one live in the world If one wants to quote the Gospels, one would have to say How can I overcome the world

Oranges Are the Not the Only Fruit is about the story of a middle class girl struggling to come to terms with her own sexuality, creativity and passion versus her family or communitys inflexible formed or fixed opinions. Though the story of the persecution of a girl because of her sexual preference is not new but this novel also offers insights about the real meaning of spirituality, as the main protagonist struggles to break free from what she perceives pretentious lives of her religious loversher family and community. As a child Jeanette is proud of her eccentric and high achieving mother and her religious community with strict religious teachings, creative structure and strong opinions coming from all corners. But when she starts to struggle with her sexuality as she meets Katy, she begins to doubt the credibility of her upbringing. The oppressive confines of her strict Pentecostal society made her doubt whether they faith is open minded or fixated. In the novel when Jeanette falls for a female friend, she comes to realise that there is more to life than the church which she wants to explore to fully discover herself and to fully know the real meaning of faith.
Set in Northern England, Oranges are Not the Only Fruit is the tale of Jess, a young girl whose adopted mother forces her to follow the path that she has planned for her. It is a novel written by Jeanette Winterson about a lesbian girl who grows up in a religious splinter community. The main protagonist Jeanette, adapted by the working-class evangelists in the North England during 60s and who grows up believing that she is destined to become a religious missionary, experiences lesbian tendencies. She grows up with people who preach the gospel alongside such spiritual giants as the passionate Testifying Elsie and Pastor Spratt. She grows up believing that she is destined for the missionary work until her charismatic encounter with one girl in particular. At the age of 16, love and sexual relationship are not yet appropriate and not yet scheduled in her timetable but at that age she decided to leave the church and home to be with the woman she loves. 
Despite Jeanettes religious and affirmative surroundings, she is confused, inconclusive and in a constant source of pain. She believes that spirituality does not only revolves in the four corners of the church and what the Bible says but instead freedom and human experience makes one experience the fullness of faith. Jeanette in her early age already found herself struggling in the community and struggling with her gender identity. Her relationship between her and her mother is constantly strained, filled with denial towards her Lesbianism. Instead of supporting her and help her overcome this peculiar struggle, her mother and her religious friends subject her and her partner to exorcisms. Jeanette also feels betrayal towards her parents as they hide her about her biological mother and adoption papers, and also feels desperation to be loved. Her idea of love especially towards God is very serious and intense as she says I want someone who is fierce and will love me to death and know that love is as strong as death (Winterson, 164). In the book it appears that the only one she trusts is God. Though Jeanette refers to her mother as a servant of God but the servants of God, by their very nature betray (Winterson 165). Apparently Jeanette in the novel is struggling to get out from her suffocating prison and parents. Staying with them, she believes will hinder her to see the real world. The real world is replaced with a world of routines, obsession, self sacrifice and human selfishness.
In the novel, horror seems to be everywhere and exorcism is a perfect illustration of this. Jeanettes mother seems to escape the reality as she can not completely accept that her adopted daughter is a lesbian. She believes that she provided everything that she needs to become a good person and so how can her daughter be a lesbian She then resorts to exorcism hoping that this will cure her daughter. Her illusions escaping reality not retrospecting her possible mistakes in bringing up her child apparently manipulated her actions. Jesss desire to learn and discover her true self in this world appears blocked at her every attempt since her lovers, the church and her mother, appear to find some sort of happiness and fulfilment in the world that Jeanettes perceived to be limited and pretentious. In this circumstance, the horror revealed while implying how power relations exist, that is, the manipulation and deceit by those who have the power (older people) and desire to control those less powerful (children who are still dependent with their parents) than themselves. The novel is filled with ironic use of humour illustrated in Jeanettes sense of humour in relation to her mother. Her comments are witty that subtly mock, especially about her mothers capability to justify and come with an explanation for every problem that seems out of the ordinary. Such wittiness from Jeanette is maybe her way to overcome issues of domination and control, by appealing to the comical in order to cope and overcome the present reality. Jesss teacher having a problem of vision (Winterson, 44) is symbolic representation of how some people in the novel, especially those religious ones, choose to ignore that which is obvious to some and not to others. Jeanettes mother can only see the world as good or evil, black or white and friend or enemy, She had never heard of mixed feelings. There were friends and there were enemies (Winterson, 33). Yet, Jeanettes homosexuality places her outside of the two extremes by showing that she is neither wholly good nor wholly evil. Apparently Jeanettes homosexuality places her into moderation. Individuals even those spiritual are not simply black and white, but also line the many shades of gray in between. Apparently this novel will make the readers realize that the world should not be led through binary systems, because this apparently limits and excludes those individuals and circumstances that fall outside of the definition. 
The idea that Jeanette is on a mythic quest frames her initial narrative. Jeanettes birth and adoption is described with images and representations from the story of Christ. At an early age, her parents and her community make her believe that she has a greater purpose by which she will live like as a Christlike figure that will help save the world. As she ages however, it becomes clear to her true purpose is to simply find and accept herself. This task is not easy as it seems however especially that her homosexual desires contradict the standards and regulations that she has believed to be true all her life. To accept her real self however, Jeanette should embark on a spiritual adventure. She must both leave her home, her comfort zones and leave her assumptions of how the world and her self are defined. From her birth Jeanette was destined for a missionary life and by the end of the novel it becomes apparent that even though she has become a lesbian, her spiritual quest still continues. She can still fulfill her initial plans even though she is a lesbian. Even if shes an adventurous writer and a lesbian, Jeanette can still help to fight against the evil in the world as her mother originally and initially intended. Although the church rejects her out of hand due to her struggles towards her sexual identity, Jeanettes behavior never comes reactionary or angry. Since Jeanette is such a compassionate and thoughtful character, it is easy to take her side and believe that her lesbianism is not wrong. Jeanettes relative fearlessness in embracing her true self shows her to be a heroine of considerable bravery.

While at first glance the Kite Runner might give the impression of a tale of friendship, closer introspection reveals that it is the voice of the author conveying the complex socio-political, economic and religious upheaval in Afghanistan and its gradual decay into an obscurantist country. It gives a voice to the unique, yet tragic reality of Afghanistan. While our perspectives of Afghanistan have largely been shaped by the media, The Kite Runner tells us what the actual ideals of the Afghan society were honor, friendship and unflinching loyalty. The story has a global appeal because of the universal phenomenon of immigration. We understand what it means to have a split identity, what it means to have your beliefs and values instilled on the basis of one culture and having to live in a country with a completely different culture. Its universal appeal is very well summarized in the quote The themes are universal familial relationships, particularly father and son the price of disloyalty the inhumanity of a rigid class system and the horrific realities of war.(Gaines 2003)
Hassan who is incapable of hurting anyone(Hosseini 5) has always stood up for Amir, while Amir on the contrary has proved to be a coward in testing times. In the initial chapters of the book the writer talks about the country, people and their way of living. In the book Baba has always been expecting more form his son, Baba states, A boy who wont stand up for himself becomes a man who cant stand up to anything. (Hosseini 11). This statement by the writer basically tells us why Amir felt more relaxed with the thought of moving to America. The complexities that arose between the relationship of Hassan and Amir can be attributed to the complex dynamics of traditional Afghan society.
The impression that I got from the book tells me that Afghans were traditionally conservative people but Amirs family was an exception as they lived life as liberal elites. This is evident from the bar in Babas room where Baba was pouring himself a whiskey (Hosseini 8). For Baba
 There is only one sin, only one. And that is theft. Every other sin is a variation of     theft.When you kill a man, you steal a life. You steal his wifes right to a husband, rob     his children of a father. When you tell a lie, you steal someones right to the truth. When     you cheat, you steal the right to fairness (Hosseini 9).
This tells me that at that time, there     was at least one segment of the population that was fairly liberal. However, in the general populace, beards were not uncommon and Afghan women were not given their due place in the society. It was a close knit society and thus everyone knew each other. Amirs father was a peoples man and this is evident from his keen interest in building and maintaining the orphanage as evidenced by the following quote I heard the story through Rahim Khan. He told me Baba had drawn the blue prints himself despite the fact that hed had no architectural experience at all. Skeptics had urged him to stop his foolishness and hire an architect. Of course, Baba refused and every one shook their heads in dismay at his obstinate ways (Hosseini 7)
Having examined the complex ethnic fabric of Afghan society, I got to know that there used to live two majority communities in Afghanistan Pashtuns were Sunni Muslims (a sect in Islam) who belonged to upper society, while the Hazaras were Shia Muslims. These groups always had rivalry between them due to religious differences. I believe that the Hazara people had faced a very cruel life in the past as reflected throughout the course of the book. For the Pashtuns majority, it was very easy to differentiate between themselves and the Hazaras, because the Hazaras looked differently too. The author employs excellent symbolism to highlight this difference between the appearances of the two ethnicities. This deformity in Hassan is described by Amir And the cleft lip, just left of midline, where the Chinese doll makers instrument may have slipped or perhaps he had simply grown tired and careless (Hosseini 2). This statement serves to highlight the difference between the appearance of Hazaras and Pushtuns under the guise of the description of a simple deformity.
With the onset of the Russian invasion of Afghanistan, Baba saw his fortunes take a turn for the worse and he started losing his dominant position in the changing political dynamics of Kabul. With the war about to break out at any moment, an Afghan resistance force called Taliban was formed with the stated aim of kicking out the Russians and establishing Islamic rule. Afghans had only two options, either join the Taliban resistance movement or accede to Russian rule. The Russians were involved in senseless butchery of the Afghans to establish their rule and Taliban were only interested in nurturing fighters. Baba was fond of neither and hence they moved to America. This was the turning point in the lives of all the characters in the book. While Amir and Baba left for USA, Hassan and Ali had to stay back to look after their house. Because of the unique twist of events, Amir was feeling very insecure his childish wish was to somehow justify his actions. He justified them by using his ethnicity In the end, I was a Pashtun and he was a Hazara, I was Sunni and he was Shia, and nothing was ever going to change that. Nothing (Hosseini 12).
    Marriage, Babas death and a child-less marriage all these events contributed towards the loneliness that Amir felt. I believe this was also a factor that contributed to Amirs eventual decision to visit Afghanistan. During all this time, Amir didnt know what was happening in Afghanistan, he didnt know anything about Hassan. He hadnt bothered to know which suggests that he was keen on forgetting his past. But the phone call from Rahim Khan and the sudden urge to go back to his roots reflects Amirs changing intentions he was suddenly jolted back to childhood. Amir goes back to Peshawar Pakistan, and upon learning all about Hassan, he realizes that he has a debt to pay a debt he owes to Hassan for his unflinching loyalty even under the direst circumstances. Rahim Khan tells Amir that there is a way to be good again(Hosseini 98) and Amir realizes it is time to seek redemption. He feels a sudden urge of affection for Hassans son and he decides to undertake the journey to Afghanistan. Being a man who had never faced his fears, Amir felt scared that he had led himself to his death by visiting Assef. This is expressed in the following words
    You are gutless. Its how you were made. And thats not such a bad thing because     youre saving grace is that youve never lied to yourself about it. Not about that. Nothing     wrong with cowardice as long as it comes with prudence. But when a coward stops     remembering who he isGod help him (Hosseini 139).
Assef has been casted not just as an evil character, but I think he is also an embodiment of the true face of the Taliban, who under the guise of religious fundamentalism perpetrated their reign of terror which wasnt very different from that of the Russians. When Taliban gained control of most of Afghanistan after the Soviet withdrawal, the Taliban set out to purge their beloved homeland of all evil. This cleansing of the evils also included the ethnic cleansing of the Hazara population and in a major demonstration of power the Taliban conducted a massacre of Hazaras at Mazar-e-Sharif. Thus the political landscape of Afghanistan wasnt much different from what Amir had left.
The social landscape and gender relations now had an extremist edge. Talibans moral code was an extreme and myopic interpretation of Islam and this moral code was strictly implemented by their moral police. Everyone feared the moral police as they could execute anyone at will just by declaring himher immoral. Women likewise were subjugated beyond imagination and their movement was restricted in many ways. Growing beards was a compulsion and its violation carried a horrendous punishment. Thus Babas opinion that God help us all if Afghanistan ever falls into their hands (Hosseini 136) with reference to the Taliban proved to be true. I believe that the ban on the traditional kite flying event and the picture of the fruitless tree is an attempt to show the sea of change that Afghanistan had undergone. It was no longer a society heading towards prosperity rather it was a hostile society. This hostile environment resulted in the killing of Hassan and his wife. The statement that Like so much else in Kabul, my fathers house was the picture of fallen splendor (Hosseini 132) symbolizes the condition of Afghanistan Whatever was beautiful and was to be valued had been destroyed.
Thus The Kite Runner is a unique story in which the changing life story of several characters tells a greater tale the tale of the demise of Afghanistan and the distortion of the values that had defined Afghan society. It also gives a historical account of how this gradual break-down took place and what factors were behind it. If Afghanistan has to progress it must remove the insecurities of the Hazara minority. While most of Afghanistan rejoiced when the Taliban took over initially, the Hazara community was scared of the consequences. Rahim Khan testifies that their concern was legitimate in the following words A couple of weeks after they seize power, the Taliban ban kite fighting. And two years later, in 1998, they massacred the Hazaras in Mazar-i-Sharif (Hosseini 107).
The hard journey of redemption is a major theme in the book. Amir wasnt the only one who had held grave secrets his father also kept the dark secret of Hassan being his son from Amir. However Rahim Khan tells Amir how in his opinion his father redeemed himself in the following wordsI think that everything he did, feeding the poor, giving money to friends in need, it was all a way of redeeming himself. And that, I believe is what true redemption is, Amir jan, when guilt leads to good(Hosseini 153). The grace of acceptance heals the wounds of brutality, for with forgiveness, anything is possible, even the wild joy of soaring Kites against a winter sky(Gaines, 2003)

    The distinction between nature and culture, as well as that of the primitive and the civilized, is defined by their relationship with one another. Such is the case since the former is understood within the context of the latter. In the case of the distinction between nature and culture, nature is perceived to represent the primitive life whereas culture is perceived to represent the civilized life. These representations carry the weight of specific connotations to each concept, an example of which can be seen in the derogatory conception of both nature and the primitive life. Nature, in this sense, is equated with the primitive life as the former is conceived as the representation of the location wherein man led a life outside of society and hence was devoid of the social aspects that allowed him to flourish due to the non-existence of conditions that would have allowed him to commune with his fellow men.

    In line with this, the following discussion focuses on the different conceptions of the relationship between nature and culture as well as that of the primitive and the civilized as they are presented in Henry David Thoreaus Walden, William Cronons The Trouble with Wilderness, and Frederick Turners The Significance of the Frontier in American History. The significance of these texts may be attributed to their analysis of the relationship between nature and culture in relation to economic development as well as within the context of American history. By doing so, they were able to raise the correlation of nature and freedom.

     Although it is indeed the case that primitive life in human history is characterized by mans relationship with the natural world as opposed to mans relationship with his fellow men, there are certain aspects of the primitive life which are worthy of consideration. For the sake of clarity, the primitive life here refers to a life defined by a complex of feeling that resists definition in either the religious or the moral terms which (is) most closely akin in our civilization (Bell 11). As opposed to this, the civilized life refers to a life defined by the social and cultural aspects that enable civilization (Bell 1). The noteworthy aspect of primitive life may be traced to its emphasis on mans relationship with nature. To a certain extent one may state that the noteworthy aspect of primitive life lies in its ability to resituate mans existence with the natural order of things. It is thereby a life defined by the conditions before the existence of society, a life wherein man possessed absolute freedom.

    Within this context, one may state that the distinction between the primitive and the civilized as well as the distinction between nature and culture may be understood within the context of freedom. Such is the case since the former provides conditions of absolute freedom whereas the later provides conditions of limited freedom. Freedom here ought to be understood as the absence of opposition (by opposition, I mean external impediments of motion) (Hobbes 136). A free man, in this sense, refers to he that in those things which by his strength and wit he is able to do is not hindered to do what he has a will to (Hobbes 136). Such a conception of freedom provides a negative definition of the term as it specifies the conditions that would prevent the existence of freedom as opposed to presenting the conditions that would enable the existence of freedom.

    In line with this, it may be argued that the reason behind the negative connotation of both nature and the primitive life lies in societys desire to maintain conditions of limited freedom. In addition to this, it may also be argued that mans continuous yearning for nature and the primitive life lies in its promise of attaining absolute freedom. However, despite the appeal of nature and the primitive life, man is unable to resituate himself within the context of the primitive life during the instances when he desires to do so. An example of this is evident in Henry David Thoreaus Walden. In the text, Thoreau narrates the reasons that led him to his retreat to Walden Pond as well as his experiences during the period. The reasons he specified may be delineated into two (1) His desire to live a primitive and frontier life and (2) His desire to attain a spiritual view of things (Thoreau 54-363).  The initial reason is contextualized within his criticism of the economics of current American life. He describes this life as a life that revolves around mans acquisition of necessities (Thoreau 47-48). He states, But men labor under a mistake. The better part of the man is soon ploughed into the soil for compost. By a seeming fate, commonly called necessity, they are employed It is a fools life, as they will find when they get to the end of it, if not before (Thoreau 47-48).

    Thoreau defines necessities as the basic aspects important to human life which includes Food, Shelter, Clothing, and Fuel (Thoreau 54). His view regarding the fools life may be ascribed to his negative perception of the effects of cultural development on man. He states, For the improvements of ages have had but little influence on the essential laws of mans existence as our skeletons, probably, are not to be distinguished from those of our ancestors (Thoreau 54). Thoreau, in this sense, perceives the development of human civilization to be detrimental to mans existence. This does not necessarily entail that Thoreau desires mankind to live an entirely primitive life. As opposed to this, Thoreau argues that it is necessary for man to enable the unification between the primitive and the civilized aspects of mans existence. This is apparent as he claims, It would be some advantage to live a primitive and frontier life, though in the midst of an outward civilization, if only to learn what are the gross necessaries of life and what methods have been taken to obtain them (Thoreau 54). Thoreau thereby perceives the experience of the primitive life as a necessary aspect for mans realization of his misallocation of priorities in life.

    In line with the initial reason for his desire for a primitive life is his belief that such a life will enable an individual to regain his spirituality. He claims that a primitive life would allow him to discover his essential self in natures self, an entity that is free, autonomous, and symbolic of an infinite spiritual identity (Thoreau 14-24). In the later part of the text, Thoreau further claims that this journey to his spiritual self has allowed him to experience a return to goodnessin respect to the love of virtue and the hatred of vice (363). 
    Given the abovementioned reasons for Thoreaus desire to experience a primitive life, one may state that his correlation of nature and spirituality along with freedom and autonomy manifest an example in which he desires to be freed from the limited freedom within the bounds of society. It is important to note that his view is based on his initial claim that supports such a belief. Such a belief however changed as he realized his inability to fully regain his spirituality despite his adherence to the primitive aspects of life. The primary reason for this lies in his submersion in culture before his experience of the primitive life. In other words, his perception of reality has been distorted by the existing beliefs that he has acquired throughout his existence and participation in society.

    Other individuals recognize this problem in mans desire to regain his freedom in nature. Frederick Turner, for example, in his discussion of the significance of frontier life in American culture argues that despite the continuous development in American civilization, the desire for further development is continuously aroused by the existence of other frontiers that Americans wish to develop. He claims,
 (I)n the case of the United Stateswe have the familiar phenomenon of the evolution of institutions in a limited area But we have in addition to this a recurrence of the process of evolution in each western area reached in the process of expansion. Thus American development has exhibited not merely advance along a single line, but a return to primitive conditions on a continually advancing frontier line, and a new development for that area. American social development has been continually beginning over again on the frontier. This perennial rebirth, this fluidity of American life, this expansion westward with its new opportunities, its continuous touch with the simplicity of primitive society, furnish the forces dominating American character. (Turner 2-3)
This process of development that characterizes American development, according to Turner, manifests the continuous cycle from the primitive to the civilized and vice-versa. The reason for this may be attributed to American cultures continuous desire for expansion in its hopes of changing the primitive forms of life outside American culture.

    This desire for the expansion of territory in American history manifests itself, according to Turner, in the peoples fascination with the frontier. He posits that for the American people, the frontier stands as the meeting point between savagery and civilization (Turner 3). At the same time, it also represents the points that require the introduction of civilization. Civilization here, according to Turner, ought to be understood outside the context of European civilization but within the context of American civilization. The frontier and hence the wilderness which follows it thereby stands as a place that must necessarily be influenced by the American civilization in order to ensure the expansion of American territory and in order to quell the influence of the European civilization. Turner states,
At first, the frontier was the Atlantic coast. It was the frontier of Europe in a very real sense. Moving westward, the frontier became more and more American. As successive terminal moraines result from successive glaciations, so each frontier leaves its traces behind it, and when it becomes a settled area the region still partakes of the frontier characteristics. Thus the advance of the frontier has meant a steady movement away from the influence of Europe, a steady growth of independence on American lines. (4)

    In line with this, the problem of freedom presented by Turner in his article is apparent if one considers that in the American civilizations desire for the development of the areas in the frontier, it fails to uphold the basic beliefs of the individuals within it. In the process of doing this, not only do these individuals lose their relationship with nature but they also lose their conception of their cultures as they are immersed within the American culture. An example of this is apparent in the case of the Indian frontier. Turner argues that the case of the expansion of the American territory in the Indian frontier involves the Americans adaptation of the Indian life in order to initially survive the land (4). This however led to the submersion of the Indian life within the life of its colonizer which later led to the eradication of the Indian culture. He states, At the frontier the environment is at first too strong for the man. He must accept the conditions which it furnishes, or perish, and so he fits himself into the Indian clearings and follows the Indian trails. Little by little he transforms the wilderness (Turner 4). The American culture, in this sense, as it is explicitly presented in both Thoreau and Waldens text fails to uphold mans spirituality and hence mans recognition of the possibility of absolute autonomy as it enables the proliferation of a culture that merely seeks continuous expansion and does not consider the preservation of the land.

    This is explicitly presented by William Cronon in The Trouble with Wilderness as he argues that the American cultures fascination with nature and hence wilderness leads to the degradation of wilderness itself. He claims that since the manifestations of this fascination are apparent in mans continuous reformation of nature to the extent that it loses its intrinsic qualities, the amount of wilderness in the world thereby continues to diminish. He claims,
To assert the unnaturalness of so natural a place will no doubt seem absurd or even perverse to many readers, so let me hasten to add that the nonhuman world we encounter in wilderness is far from being merely our own invention. I celebrate with others who love wilderness the beauty and power of the things it contains Remember the feelings of such moments, and you will know as well as I do that you were in the presence of something irreducibly nonhuman, something profoundly Other than yourselfAnd yet what brought each of us to the places where such memories became possible is entirely a cultural invention. (Cronon 8)
As can be seen from Cronons claim, mans continuous alteration of the frontier and D  or wilderness leads to man s alteration of himself. Such is the case since during these instances man loses his ties with his primitive and spiritual self. In the same way, man loses his ties with the possibility of absolute freedom. Cronon thereby emphasizes that to alter wilderness leads to the alteration of man himself.

    It is important to note however that within the text Cronon also questions the equation of wilderness with the primitive. This is apparent as Cronon argues that to assume that the wilderness retains its natural properties involves the assumption that anything that man touches remains unaltered. He however posits that such a condition is impossible. This is explicitly apparent as he questions Thoreaus claim as he states,
For many Americans wilderness stands as the last remaining place where civilizationhas not fully infected the earth. It is an island in the polluted sea of urban-industrial modernity, the one place we can turn for escape from our own too-muchness. Seen in this way, wilderness presents itself as the best antidote to our human selves, a refuge we must somehow recover if we hope to save the planet. As Henry David Thoreau once famously declared, In Wildness is the preservation of the World. But is it (Cronon 7)

It is apparent in Cronons question itself that he does not think that such is the case. He argues in line with a constructivist argument that assumes that reality is mans creation. The simplest example of this is apparent if one considers that the concepts and meanings associated with the wilderness are mans creations. If such is the case, it follows from this that the wilderness, both the concept and the object to which the concept is attributed, are already molded by mans consciousness as well as by mans physical influence.

    Within this context, one may state that mans correlation of the wild with nature and the primitive aspects of life lies in mans desire to retain a certain aspect of reality which he desires to perceive as separate from himself. Such is the case since by doing so he is able to retain a certain conception of the possibility of attaining absolute freedom. This is apparent in Thoreaus text as he perceives nature as the source of mans spirituality. Such a conception however, within the context of both Turner and Cronons text, seems to be nave since it fails to account for the influence of man on his surroundings. As was mentioned in the initial part of the discussion, the concepts nature and culture are defined by their relationship with one another. Such is the case since it is man who determines their difference and their opposition with one another.