American Literature

Death is better than slavery is a famous quote by Harriet Ann Jacobs. Oxford dictionary defines slavery as a condition of a slave. Who is a slave What is slavery Why should one be a slave What are the effects of slavery These questions question not only the biggest thrift in the history of mankind where humanism is concerned, but also questions mans sanity. A salve is a person who is owned by somebody for whom heshe has to work which after a generation generally becomes a habit. The gravity of the situation is so strong that a slave is exploited or dominated ninety nine percent of the time and the want for freedom is so strong that it becomes a passion in their hearts. And history is the proof of mans struggle for freedom. Time and again we see instances where the passion for freedom takes different shapes some might take shelter under knowledge and use it to gain freedom from bondage, while others resort to violence. When we read Frederick Douglasss Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass and Herman Melvilles Benito Cereno, this aspect is highlighted.

Frederick Douglasss Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, is a raw narration that not only touches human heart but human soul as well. It conveys and illustrates how important freedom is for a person in order to gain self-identity and what oppression does to an individual. The practice of slavery was prominent in the South and everyone is well apprised of the Civil War that followed it. Douglass presents slavery as an abomination of mankind. Slavery robbed mankind of his own identity. Several instances in Douglasss Narrative depict this. I do not remember to have ever met a slave who could tell of his birthday. The white children could tell their ages. I could not tell why I ought to be deprived of the same privilege and My father was a white man. He was admitted to be such by all I ever heard speak of my parentage. The opinion was also whispered that my master was my father but of the correctness of this opinion, I know nothing the means of knowing was withheld from me (Douglass), only emphasizes the fact that the slaves were forced to be ignorant of their own identity.

Slaves were neither allowed to make any inquires to the master regarding any personal information as an evidence of a restless spirit, nor were they allowed to complain regardless the emergency of the situation or justify themselves. They were subordinate souls that lived under constant fear and never knew when they would be punished by their masters.

Masters like Colonel Lloyd owned about three to four hundred slaves and this can be compared to a human being who owns livestock. The very fact that a slave child before its twelfth month was separated from its mother and when Douglass points out that he had met his mother only four or five times and was not allowed to see her even at her funeral only portrays that the slaves were thoroughly exploited by their masters. The masters like Mr. Covey used slaves who were women as breeders to breed more slaves to add to their wealth. Any women found in the company of another man was beaten very badly and Douglasss first horror that imprinted his mind was the assault of his Aunt Hester by the master Captain Anthony for the very cause. Such was the state of slaves who were women

No slave owned their body and the master was free to use it as and how heshe wanted.  Most masters punished their slaves without any fault of theirs and brutally abused their bodies physically and their mind mentally. Several instances in Douglasss Narrative prove this. The whipping of old Barney for unreasonable issues horse was slow or did not hold its head high, tarring of the fence so that no slave went and ate the fruits in the garden, killing of Demby by Austin Gore just because he hid himself in the creek and hadnt come out when Gore gave a call validate the cruelty of the masters. Emotionally drained, Douglass states that, thus the guilty perpetrator of one of the bloodiest and most foul murders goes unwhipped of justice, and uncensured by the community in which he lives. The killing of two slaves by Mr. Thomas Lanman, killing of another slave girl by Mrs. Giles Hicks just because she was slow to go near Mrs. Hickss baby when it cried, killing of an old slave by Mr. Bondly because the slave had trespassed his property and had fished for oysters and Douglasss own assault in the hands of Mr. Covey prove how inhuman and mournful a slaves life was. They were frequently whipped when least deserving, and escaped whipping when most deserving it (Douglass), amplifies the fact that a slaves life was solely dependent on the mood of the master. It was under the masters discretion when and how he could suppress the slave.

No law could question the actions of the masters. The masters made the law. They easily escaped by stating that the slaves were unmanageable and thus they had to resort to violence to teach other slaves a lesson. Teaching the slaves was unlawful and no slave was to be educated. The school that was started by Mr. Wilson for the slaves was soon shut down by the community. Any slave who struck a white man was killed as per law. No slave could testify against a white and that was the law. No law sheltered the life of the slaves and It was a common saying, even among little white boys, that it was worth a half-cent to kill a nigger, and a half-cent to bury one (Douglass). Thus, we can clearly understand that society was divided on the basis of color. Racism was prevalent in the South and it poached the law to that extent that secularism and democracy had no stand against it.

Slavery as we know is equivalent to bondage as the slaves were treated no better than animals or in certain circumstances we can say that they were treated worse than the animals. Douglass provides us an explicit picture of the lifestyle of a slave

The slaves received, as their monthly allowance of food, eight pounds of pork, or its equivalent in fish, and one bushel of corn meal. Their yearly clothing consisted of two coarse linen shirts, one pair of linen trousers, like the shirts, one jacket, one pair of trousers for winter, made of coarse Negro cloth, one pair of stockings, and one pair of shoes the whole of which could not have cost more than seven dollars.

Most of the slave children from seven to ten years old were seen naked as their clothing consisted of two coarse linen shirts per year and if that failed they went naked till next allowance day. The food for slave children was served in a common tray and they ate like many pigs devouring the food and only the strongest ate the most. Douglass recalled the cold winter that he spent as he had nothing but a linen cloth on and he was forced to sleep in a stolen corn bag. Douglass states that, My feet have been so cracked with the frost that the pen with which I am writing might be laid in the gashes. Such was the living condition of a slave

Slavery harassed the slaves emotionally and left them bereft of any humane emotion. They who were scared to voice out their opinions were used to such severe hardships that meager physical violence or hardship was a part and parcel of their lives. Slavery for Mr. Covey a man known to break slaves had its own advantage and disadvantage for Douglass. He made him work all throughout the day and sneaked up on those who rested and whipped them. Douglass was so exhausted and emotionally broken down that he wanted to end his life and began to doubt in the existence of God. He confounds this by stating that, I was broken in body, soul, and spirit. My natural elasticity was crushed, my intellect languished, the disposition to read departed, and the cheerful spark that lingered about my eye died the dark night of slavery closed in upon me and behold a man transformed into a brute Something changed Douglass something gave him the spirit to fight against Covey and his men. It was this fight that became a turning point in his life. He began to believe in his manhood and the confidence that was dead in him began to surge to life. His want for freedom began to grow immensely, for he states that, He only can understand the deep satisfaction which I experienced, who has himself repelled by force the bloody arm of slavery (Douglass). Another repercussion of slavery that we can comprehend is violence that outbreaks and the want for freedom that burns ones heart, mind, body and soul.

If violence was one way to gain freedom, Douglass used knowledge to gain it. Educating a slave was against the law and with the few alphabets that his mistress Sophia Auld taught him, Douglass fought his way through, going through several hardships, be it bribing the local boys or practicing writing on the walls, he learnt to read and write and was finally able to read The Columbian Orator, a dialogue between a master and slave. He learnt the meaning of the word abolitionist and planned his escape.

Escaping the clutches of slavery and having enough confidence to write this narration, Frederick Douglass hesitated to mention the names of the people who taught him, helped him escape or the means that he used to escape the brute called slavery. Power corrupts man and the slave holder who got the taste of dominating and controlling anothers life was affected and controlled by this evil called slavery. Douglass also brought about the squeamish and ill practices of the churches of the South that supported slavery. The slave holders who visited the church became even more confident in their sacrilegious acts that they named confidently called it religious. Using irony and expressing his views sharply, Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass portrays the condition of a slave who used knowledge to gain his freedom and upon reflection at one point did feel that death was better than slavery.

The enigma that Benito Cereno by Herman Melville weaves is truly astounding. Staging its characters in the most mysterious way and portraying the still image of slavery in its scene, Benito Cereno unfolds the repercussions of slavery. It highlights the violence used by the slaves against the oppression called slavery. The central theme of Benito Cereno is racism. Was it racism that gave rise to slavery or was it slavery that gave rise to racism- the point is moot when we read Benito Cereno as racism or slavery-both gave rise to violence.

Slavery existed all round the world and we get a clear picture of this when the ship named San Dominick from Spain reached the coast of St.Maria. Amasa Delano, of Duxbury (Massachusetts), the Captain of the ship Bachelors Delight, compassionate towards the plight of the ship, upon inspection found out that it was, A Spanish merchantman of the first class, carrying negro slaves, amongst other valuable freight, from one colonial port to another (Melville). After meeting Benito Cereno, Delano concluded that he was half-lunatic and lost in his cloudy languor. The condition of the slaves in San Dominick was no better than any slave and upon closer look, Delano states that, In one language, and as with one voice, all poured out a common tale of suffering in which the Negresses, of whom there were not a few, exceeded the others in their dolorous vehemence (Melville). Shipping of slaves was a common practice that was followed and they were treated nothing more than animals. The brutal way in which they were chained and the unhygienic way in which they were led, resembled a horde of cattle shipped to another place. The death rates of the slaves were very high. With their self-respect mutilated and subjected to scorn and difference, the life of a slave was truly exploited by their masters who owned them.

The servant wore nothing but wide trousers, apparently, from their coarseness and patches, made out of some old topsail (Melville) proves that they were given only limited clothes to wear and had to be satisfied and were always under the masters iron fist. Several instances portray the treatment given to the slaves as the story unfolds. Delano is surprised by the liberty that the slaves on the ship San Dominick enjoyed and taught that if Cereno perhaps had more energy would have controlled his slaves and managed them in a much better way. The very fact that the slave boy on the ship when assaulted a Spanish boy was left unpunished by the captain was a source of great concern for Delano and he mentioned Had such a thing happened on board the Bachelors Delight, instant punishment would have followed (Melville). Adding to this, Delano believed in keeping his slaves busy and occupied. To emphasize this fact we can quote Delanos words,

I should think, Don Benito, he now said, glancing towards the oakum-picker who had sought to interfere with the boys, that you would find it advantageous to keep all your blacks employed, especially the younger ones, no matter at what useless task, and no matter what happens to the ship. I once kept a crew on my quarter-deck thrumming mats for my cabin, when, for three days, I had given up my shipmats, men, and allfor a speedy loss, owing to the violence of a gale, in which we could do nothing but helplessly drive before it.

Delano, an American for whom slavery was an institution, was even more surprised by the privileges that Cerenos slave servant Babo. More adept to good conduct, he seemed to take care of his captain very well. Delanos offer to purchase Babo for fifty doubloons, adds to the fact that slaves were considered inferior to the whites and their life was controlled and dominated by their masters. They lived according to their masters wishes and abided by the confounded rules laid by them. Their masters wish was a command to the slaves. However, he was perpetually surprised by the presence of Babo next to his master even without the masters request that was strictly against the slave rule and Babos bold and confident attitude did surprise Delano and on one occasion he expressed his irony thus, Ha, Don Benito, your black here seems high in your trust a sort of privy-counselor, in fact(Melville). The ease at which Babo conversed with his master annoyed Delano. Delano was equally awed by the tyranny in Cerenos treatment of his slave Atufal and wondered if Cereno was truly a captain.

Delano narration of another instance of the punishment and ill treatment that slaves had to endure when he states, The trampling of the sailor by the two Negroes a piece of insolence passed over without as much as a reprimand (Melville). This emphasizes the fact that the slaves were otherwise not so bold and were subordinate to their masters always. Last but not the least, when Delano mentions, The cringing submission to their master, of all the ships underlings, mostly blacks as if by the least inadvertence they feared to draw down his despotic displeasure(Melville), he is thoroughly surprised and is unaccustomed to such behavior of the slaves. These instances only established the pathetic state of a slave.

What unfolds in the end of the story is the therapeutic resolve of the slaves to slavery. The approach that they used to gain freedom was violence and not knowledge. Babo and the other slaves had captured the Spanish ship and had held the Spaniards captive. Babos attempted murder on Cereno and ultimately his death in the hands of Delano only demonstrated the violence that the slave had resorted to, to gain his precious freedom. It ultimately tells to the entire world that slavery- a dreaded social disease if not treated, will procure more and more criminals to the society. Slavery and racism produce violence.

 Having experienced slavery firsthand Fredrick Douglass represented the oppression and elucidated the effects of slavery in the most heart-touching, soul twitching sense. The sense of emotional turmoil felt by a slave and the cause and effect of slavery on ones approach towards life and finding freedom eventually through knowledge is the central theme of Fredrick Douglass Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass. Benito Cereno on the other hand by Herman Melville, is ambiguous in it approach and controversial in its support to anti-slavery ideals. In spite of it depicting the social scene of the slaves and the consequences of slavery it portrays slaves as rebels who use violence to achieve freedom. Both the works written only few years before the Civil War, prove that Douglass and Melville were contemporaries. Both tell the readers the direction in which the country was leading and very loudly blew the horns for the forthcoming Civil War.

 Although Douglass portrayed the social conditions of the slaves and their want for freedom in the most non-violent way, Melvilles description of slaves as rebels only subtly pointed out the fact that regardless the approach to slavery the country was headed to internal conflict between the North and the South. It was time that the society was uprooted of the evil called racism that gave birth to slavery. All in all one can now understand how freedom is important and these works provide a great example for mans struggle for freedom.

Albee describes his work as an examination of the American Scene, an attack on the substitution of artificial for real values in our society, a condemnation of complacency, cruelty, and emasculation and vacuity, a stand against the fiction that everything in this slipping land of ours is peach-keenwww.imagination.commoonstruckclsc44.html, How is this reflected in The Zoo Story Cite quotes from scenes and pages to support your answer.

It is true that Edwards Albee uses his 1958 The Zoo Story play to explore and critique the prevailing values in American society. For example, to describe the social scene in America during this period, the playwright uses two very different characters called Jerry and Peter. In this regard, Peter is depicted as leading a comfortable life that is detached and indifferent to the troubled lives of people like Jerry. Peters comfortable lifestyle is depicted by his statement that he read about prosthesis in an issue of Time Magazine. When Jerry inquires about the source of Peters information, Peter replies by saying I read about it somewhere Time Magazine, I think (McMichael and Crews 2057). In response, Jerry remarks that Time Magazine isnt for blockheads (McMichael and Crews 2057). This conversation shows that Jerry and Peter have varied socioeconomic statuses.  In effect, Jerry has been made to lead an inhuman life by his little means while Peter leads a rather comfortable life. Albee thus attacks this biased social arrangement by using Jerry to intrude into the comfortable existence of Peter. Moreover, Jerry forces Peter to listen to almost insignificant and irrelevant issues. The playwright thus seeks to quash the view that disadvantaged society members have no opinions worth listening to. The complacent and cruel stance that society has adopted to make people like Jerry insignificant and worthless is thus criticized.

In addition, Jerry vividly describes the inner condition of his residence in vivid detail to highlight the fact that all is not well in the American social arrangement. For instance, Jerry says that one of his walls is made of beaverboard adding that this beaverboard separates my room from another laughably small room (McMichael and Crews 2060). This is a miserable type of life which starkly contrasts with Peters. Conversely, Peter observes that his 2 daughters have their own bedroom, suggesting a comfortable life. The playwright thus shows that although Peter and his equals lead good lives, other people, like Jerry lead, poverty-ridden lives. The American socioeconomic landscape is thus not pleasant.        

 The Zoo Story is often considered absurdist literature. How do you see it fitting within this tradition (Refer to lecture an explanation of this movement). Explain your position in one or two paragraphs and cite quotes from the play, providing scene and pages numbers to support your position.

Absurdist literature focuses on studying human behaviors in very unusual circumstances.  Moreover, it has little elements of judgment regarding characters and their actions, leaving the reader to make independent evaluations of characters. Absurdist literature, whose characters are generally ambiguous, does not also have an explicit moral lesson behind it. All these elements are evident in Albees The Zoo Story play. For example, the circumstances under which Jerrys behavior is analyzed are very unique. Jerry just happens to encounter Peter in a Public Park after which Jerry begins a conversation that reveals Jerrys character and background. Peter is reading a book when Jerry interrupts by asking Do you mind if I ask you questions. These 2 persons do not even know each others names, making the situation a truly unique one. Moreover, Albee relates the story in an unbiased manner without glorifying or demonizing either Jerry or Peter. Readers are thus left to their own devices to independently assess the two characters. In addition, both Peter and Jerry are rather ambiguous because, except for their personal descriptions of their respective lives, no other information about them is available. For instance, Peter describe himself by saying that he has an executive position with a ... a smallpublishing house. The identity of Peters employer is thus not revealed. Conversely, Jerry is also sketchy in describing himself. For example, he states that he lives between Columbus Avenue and Central Park West. This is also a sketchy explanation that makes Jerry an ambiguous character. In effect, Albee presents his characters as ambiguous, thus making the play an absurdist literature. Conversely, the moral in The Zoo Story is unclear, leaving readers to grapple with the possible interpretations of the literary work. This aspect designates the play as an absurdist piece of literature.  

Question 1(a). What symbolic significance does the unicorn have in the play

Answer- Laura had a close bonding with the unicorn because both were special but with the unicorns horn gone it had become ordinary and for a breathtaking moment Laura had thought that she probably had the opportunity of becoming normal like the unicorn, but that was not to be. So she gives the unicorn to Jim as a souvenir and an indirect message to the audience that he had broken her dream of ever having a normal life.

When the horn of the unicorn breaks accidentally, she makes another fantasy out of it and says that now the unicorn would feel more relaxed and less freakish in the company of other horses. This is, perhaps, a reflection of her own secret longing to be more like other people and not be constantly reminded of her disability because of her leg-brace. The unicorn had special significance as Laura has a special bonding with the unicorn.  The unicorn does not exist in reality and Jim points that out to Laura when he says, A unicorn, huh  arent they extinct in the modern world (Williams 7). Similarly Laura is unable to exist in her real life and is more reminiscent of the luminous unicorn than the more ordinary people around her. She has a limp and feels deformed the unicorn has only one horn, which makes him different from the rest of the animals.

This imagery is again brought to the fore when Laura and Jim are dancing and the horn of the unicorn is accidentally broken. Laura says, Now it is just like all the other horses (Williams 7). She, too, feels more normal and like other girls she knows now that Jim has danced with her and made her feel good. Ironically, however, when Laura hears that Jim is engaged she gives him the unicorn as a symbol of her relinquishing claims to normalcy and that the now normal unicorn minus his horn was more suitable for Jims world more than hers. Jims breaking off its horn also symbolized the fact that he had broken something inside of Laura by the announcement of his engagement.

Question 1(b). What symbolic significance does the entire glass menagerie have Cite specific quotes to support your answer.

Answer- The play The Glass Menagerie is replete with symbols and the glass figurines that Laura collects which are both beautiful and delicate symbolizing her character the most closely. Laura is strangely beautiful and delicate and like her glass figurines is fragile and easy to destroy. For Laura fantasizing was a necessity as that was the only time when she felt unfettered and free. Her personification of the animals justifies her existence in this world of illusions where she spends most of her time and can feel uninhibited. Tom describes Lauras condition quite accurately when he says, She lives in a world of her own  a world of  little glass ornaments (Williams 5). She is also trapped in her menagerie like the others are trapped in their own memories and there is no escape for her.

Like Laura Amanda and Tom have their own methods of escaping the harsh reality. Tom keeps looking meaningfully at the fire escape as a possible route to escape the reality of his existence. Amanda tells Tom, You dont know things anywhere You live in a dream you manufacture illusions (Williams7). Amanda, on the other hand, keeps referring to her youth when she could attract people with her Southern charm. She reminisces to Jim, All of my gentlemen callers were sons of planters and so of course I assumed that I would be married to one and raise my family on a large piece of land with plenty of servants (Williams 6).

In The Glass Menagerie, Williams captures the more common tendency among humans to escape difficult situations rather than face them and have the energy to change their circumstances. Laura, perhaps, resorts to the more realistic practice of escapism and living in a bubble whereas the other characters escape either to their past of fanciful promise of the future . All of these reactions to lifes realities are true and widely prevalent and one should not draw false conclusions or be judgmental about the methods opted by the characters to deal with their situations.

Question 2 Which character in the play can be considered the plays hero Define your response with evidence from the text.

Answer  Laura is the tragic hero of this play as her character is the most tragic. Amanda has her memories of blue mountains and can carry fantasies of her being just as youthful and sought after as when she was a girl through the advancing years of her life. Tom escapes to the Merchant Marines and breaks away from the physical ties that held him trapped in the Wingfield family. Jim goes away to marry Betty and have a normal and commonplace life. Lauras situation is the most difficult. Painfully shy and conscious of her deformity she is as fragile as her glass figurines. Amanda tries to be encouraging but only ends up sounding facetious when she says, Why youre not crippled, you just have a little defect  hardly noticeable, even When people have some slight disadvantage like that, they cultivate other things to make up for it  develop charm  and vivacity  and  charm. She does not realize that sentiments of this kind make Laura more diffident and lost.

In The Glass Menagerie all the main characters escape into a fantasy world when faced with the cold facts of their existence. They dream of what might have been or what will be but never really come to grips with what is. Laura escapes into her glass menagerie to seek freedom and peace. She conjures lives for her glass animals and talks about them in such a way as to indicate that they were actual beings and that she could communicate with them as she did with Amanda and Tom. Jim for a few moments had given her the hope of being able to find salvation but his declaration that he was engaged to be married shatters even that dream for Laura. At the end of the scene Tom asks Laura to blow out the candles which indicate that whatever hopes she may have had were blown away as well and plunged her life in darkness.

In their poems Chicago and The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere, Carl Sandburg and Henry Wadsworth Longfellow use combinations of poetic devices to paint a picture of their subjects. In the case of Sandburg, the city of Chicago becomes not simply a place on the map but almost human. The citys negative qualities are shown through similes and metaphors that show the raw energy of Chicago. In addition, Sandburg uses synecdoche to bring the city to life, not only in the image of the city as a man but also through addressing the poem to the city. Longfellows poem describes the ride of Paul Revere to alert his neighbors and fellow patriots of the British arrival. Using rhyme and rhythm as well as minor figures of speech, such as personification, he creates a kind of patriotic fable to describe this important event. In both cases, the poets are able to strengthen the purpose of their poem through the use of these devices.

Carl Sandburgs Chicago is full of strong images that aim to show the toughness and uncultured beauty of the city. Throughout the poem, Sandburg describes the city as Fierce as a dog (ll.12), cunning as a savage (ll.12), and Laughing even as an ignorant fighter (ll.20). Each of these figures of speech show represents the same qualities and show Chicago as a strong, violent, and stubborn city. Combined with the similes, the use of synecdoche helps to strengthen the image of the city as more than just a place to live. It has instead become a place that has been shaped by the painted women under the gas lamps (ll.6) or the gunman (ll.7). While each of these people are Chicagos people and called your painted women, the city itself is the truly living part of the poem to the point that it is the city, the idea of Chicago that Sandburg addresses and not the citizens. Using synecdoche, the city gains not only personality but it comes alive and coarse and strong and cunning (ll.10), flinging magnetic curses (ll.11). Through the use of these poetic devices, Sandburg shows his love for the city and its unique energy.

Longfellows poem The Midnight Ride of Paul Revere is not as full of figure of speech as Sandburgs but is rather a more straightforward telling of the mood of 1775 and the ride itself. Its through the use of rhyme and the steady rhythm of the poem, sounding almost like the beating of horse hooves that illustrates the importance of Reveres ride to Concord. The closed form of the poem sticks to a pattern of a, b, a (ll.6-8) with alternating rhymes of a, a, b, b, a (ll.1-5) or a, b, b, a. (ll.31-34). That Longfellow doesnt follow only one set rhyme scheme supports the idea that the beat of the poem should imitate the horse running down the coast. These rhymes provide not only the necessary rhythm to imply the sound of Revere riding to warn his fellow colonists but also help to push the story forward. With the opening lines of Listen my children and you shall hear Of the midnight ride of Paul Revere (ll.1-2) shows the intention of the poem as more than just a historical story. The poem becomes, instead, a real-life myth of American independence. Adding to this is the mood Longfellow creates through minor personification of such things as the somber rafters (ll.35) of the Old North Church that show the almost holy importance of Reveres ride to the fate of the colonies. Like Sandburg, he creates a distinct picture of the event that is more than a description and infuses the spirit of Reveres ride for freedom into the poem.

Many poets highlighted freedom and liberty but Walt Whitman has assigned a rather different way to freedom. Issues as slavery, freedom, and politics have been highlighted and put forward by Whitman in his journalistic tone with a touch of rhymes, very different from traditional poetry.

Introduction
Walt Whitman has been counted as Americas most influential poet of all times. Whitman in literary lobbies is referred to as father of free verse. Free verse is the kind of poetry, which lacks regular patterns in case of rhythms, rhymes and meters. Rhythms in free verse are created by using special poetic devices and these are inclusive of repetitions, alliterations, and some specific sound devices. Poetry written by Whitman has been observed to match the content.

Whitman in his poetry enjoys and celebrates the freedom of an American individual. Ways in which freedom of an individual is celebrated in United States is different from that in Europe and this difference was also reflected in European poetry. Ordinary people were Whitmans subjects. This is reflected in his poem, The British Romantics, which is observed to celebrate an individuals freedom. Whitman has evolved to write very differently from traditional ways of poetry. Another observation made in Whitmans poetry is that he celebrated and talked about the relationship of body and soul, as he believed that body is a gateway to the soul.

As a poet, journalist, essay writer and a humanist, Whitman is considered as a transition between two major themes, transcendentalism and realism well reflected in his works. Whitman breaking the boundaries of general poetry adopted a general pose like poetry. Unusual images that have been observed in Whitmans poetry include debris, tufts of straw and rotten leaves. It is obvious from his works that all his life he focused on politics. Whitman talked against slavery and he always supported Wilmot Proviso, one of the events that could have helped in abolition of slavery in America.  Whitman, making him a strong supporter of slavery by talking about abolishing slavery, held a strong egalitarian point of view on races. However, later in his life, he realized that abolition of slavery could be a threat to democracy. He believed that slavery is black tide that will one day drastically take over all White working class. Whitman believed that  if slavery is allowed in Western territories, White men will start fearing devaluation of their own labor.

Whitmans poetry is reflective of the beliefs that were held by him in his life. Whitman believed that as an individual absorbs and loves his country in a passionate manner, poetry should be absorbed by the country in the same manner. Whitman believed that there was a vital, poetic and a symbiotic relationship between a poet and his society. Thus, there seems to be an existence of journalism in all of his works reflected by an increased sense of patriotism and love for freedom of speech in his works. Titles of his works also reflect the same theme. One of the poems that he wrote was named as I Hear America Singing. This poem is evident of celebration of freedom of all American individuals thereby celebrating freedom of United States. Rights held by American individuals to enjoy free life and freedom are main themes in this poem. Patriotism, liberty and freedom have always been the main parts and constituents of Whitmans poems.

I Hear America singing, the varied carols I hearThose of mechanics--each one singing his, as it should be, blithe andstrongThe carpenter singing his, as he measures his plank or beam,The mason singing his, as he makes ready for work, or leaves offworkThe boatman singing what belongs to him in his boat--the deckhandsinging on the steamboat deckThe shoemaker singing as he sits on his bench--the hatter singing ashe stands.

Second poem that reflects Whitman connecting sounds of life with music is Beat Beat Drums. This poem was published in the beginning of American Civil War. Strongest forms of rhythm are reflected in this poem, designing music as related to the sounds of real life. As always, there is a strong element of patriotism seen in this poem as Whitman builds a connection between rhythmic sounds of drums and army men marching. This poem is an evidence of the fact that Whitman is considered a master of adding an element of freedom in his poetry. Thereby here it has been observed that being aware of basics of traditional poetry, there was a choice in the hands of Whitman to write in a traditional way but he chose to write in his own journalistic way.

BEAT beat drums--Blow bugles blowThrough the windows--through doors--burst like a ruthless force,Into the solemn church, and scatter the congregationInto the school where the scholar is studyingLeave not the bridegroom quiet--no happiness must he have now with his brideNor the peaceful farmer any peace, plowing his field or gathering his grainSo fierce you whirr and pound, you drums--so shrill you bugles blow.

Versification procedure that was up taken by Whitman was loose and this method has been observed to discard all forms of rhymes in his writings, along with some evidences of rhymes occurring at unequal intervals. Poems of Whitman can be defined as a harmonious flow of words.

Whitman seems to have never given up on his mission to speak about freedom and by doing this he stayed steady on his beliefs. Aggressiveness has been observed to be the main part of his writings and there is no middle ground observed. Thereby literary lobbies argue that Whitman can be considered a genius in massive proportions. There are certain contemporaries held by Whitman that do not let his work come under the critical attacks. On the other hand, it has been argued that there is an observation of a level of egotism in every verse written by Whitman and this egotism is associated with sublimity. It is argued that if Whitman is analyzed in all depths than the message that he transfers is take me or leave me. If taken and accepted than it should be in the form of a complete man. Thereby, this is the self-confidence in Whitman and his works that is not to be ignored. This self-confidence can be regarded as one of the main reasons of Whitmans genius. For some literary lobbies, Whitman has been considered as a disturber of poetic peace and harmony and a chaotic lunatic. Nevertheless, there is no doubt about Whitman being a remarkable and a genius poet in English literature.

In 1840, Whitman worked as a chief editor for The Long Island Star and during his career of journalism he published his literary work including poems and fiction. Other than this, he also criticized works of Carlyle and Emerson. As an editor and a journalist, Whitman obtained a platform where he had the power to highlight and to talk about issues that surrounded as politics, chaos, banking and poetry. It was believed by Whitman that promotion of opinions is not the goal instead, it is the presence of a special kind of sympathy that arises in the mind of a journalist serving for his public. As a journalist and as a poet he believed that there is a need to frame all issues in accordance to the interest of working class.

Conclusion
Whitman has been known as that journalist turned poet who have enjoyed American individuals freedom.  Disregarding slavery was because it was linked with the labor freedom of the white Americans and Whitman believed that slavery was a threat to labor of Whites.

The American Dream is what every American wants to havea better, richer, and happier life. Its about having the freedom to reach ones goals in life and to achieve economic or social status better than ones parents. This very desire is what Boy Willie in The Piano Lesson has and what Martin Luther King, Jr. wished for his fellow Black men to have as apparent in his I Have a Dream speech.

In The Piano Lesson, Boy Willie wants to sell their old piano to claim the Sutters, his ancestors former masters land. For him, it signifies his and his familys absolute freedom and separation from slavery. He believes that once he has claimed the land his family, the Charles, have worked so hard for during the past generations, he will finally experience equality. There would be no trace of his family having masters to serve, and they would not be called slaves as they would have already become land owners themselves. For Boy Willie, selling the piano and claiming the land his forefathers have spilled sweat and blood for is his vision of the American Dream.

The speech Martin Luther King, Jr. delivered at Lincoln Memorial on August 28, 1963, which is currently known as I Have a Dream, presents similar visions such as that of Boy Willies, the most apparent being the want for freedom. In his speech, Luther King expressed his dream for his people to be freeas free as the Constitution and the Declaration of Independence say Americans, both Blacks and Whites, ought to be. He spoke of his desire for equality, for White and Black men to live side by side without thoughts of discrimination, and for men of all colors and of all beliefs to be able to hold hands and announce real freedom at last.

Eugene ONeills The Hairy Ape play revolves around Bob Smith, or Yank, showing that the Transatlantic Liner fireman has had an extremely painful past. Having been brought up in an unstable family, Yank nurses feelings of hatred towards society in general and utter desperation. To begin with, Yanks father was abusive, a situation that forced the son to escape following the death of his mother. Yank also explains that his parents used to fight so hard that they usually damaged the family furniture. Eventually, Yank is isolated by all persons, a scenario that compels him to seek companionship with an ape that finally kills him.

The theme of ONeills play is how Yank - a contemporary man, struggles in an industrial society. To illustrate this theme, Yank sadly realizes that he is unable to transcend existing ideological or class barriers. Moreover, Yank is unable to develop new barriers. In effect, Yank is merely an outsider who finally closely resembles an entity that is caged in a zoo at which people point. To illustrate Yanks inability to rise above class barriers, Mildred Douglas becomes so scared of Yanks physical appearance that she flees in apprehension. Mildred has gone to check on Yank and his fellow Ocean Liner firemen as they feed coal into the sea vessels engine. The sight of Yank visible frightens Mildred such that she seeks protection from Yank colleagues. Mildred even calls Yank a huge hairy ape (ONeill 154). This incidence thus shows that Yank cannot be socially at par with Mildred despite the fact that he works towards facilitating the continuation of the business interests of people of Mildreds class. This struggle continues throughout the play up to the time Yank desperately seeks companionship with an ape that ultimately kills him.

ONeills play is set in various locations which serve to demonstrate that low class people like Yank endure get suffering under their upper-class counterparts. Initially, Yank and his colleagues are aboard a sea vessel enjoying themselves by drinking. Yank is however contemplatively quiet, a fact that makes his colleagues to urge him to Drink, dont think (ONeill 142). Yank also laments that de woild owns me alluding to his save-like condition in the sea vessel (ONeill 278). Mildred also comes in as Yank works on the Ocean Liner alongside his colleagues. Next, Yank accompanies Long as the 2 tour New York. As he tries to capture attention, Yank makes someone miss a bus. Yak is thus arrested and incarcerated on Blackwells Island. As he converses with fellow prisoners, Yank explains his desire to revenge in Mildred.  He is thus advised to become a member of the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW).  Yank thus realizes that Mildreds father has metaphorically and physically caged him.  Afterwards, Yank visits the IWW offices. He is however rebuffed on suspicion that he is spying for the government.  He then visits a zoo whereby he tries to seek the companionship of an ape that kills him. Yanks hopelessness sis reflected in his statement I couldnt belong in dat (ONeill 298). All these incidences, from the Ocean Liner all the way to the zoo, illustrate Yanks situation of being segregated and detained by society.  

Yank seems to be illiterate based on his mispronunciation of the word think whereby he inserted says tink (ONeill 96). In addition hi desire to engage in thought shows that he is a contemplative person. Moreover, through his reaction to Mildreds unkind gesture and statement, Yank is shown to be very sensitive. The philosophical side of Yank plays out when he tries to informs the ape that both Yank and the gorilla are alike since they are caged.        

Oedipus Rex is a great tragedy. Perhaps the reason why its popularity withstood the test of time is because there are so many factors working in its favor. The technological aspects of the play is one, with the manuscript being short enough to read in one sitting and some lines such as You pray to the godsLet me grant your prayers. The whole set-up of the play is easy enough to set in mind. Additionally, there is the text itself. The story of Oedipus can easily ingratiate itself to many mortal mens minds. He is a walking misfortune, and men do so seem to relate with bad luck.

One cannot accuse Oedipus of being stupid he solved the riddle of the sphinx, after all. Yet, one of the main aspects of the play is the reference to sight. Oedipus continued to act like the blind man, refusing to follow-up on clues that has been left here and there for his realization of the truth. Tireseas, the real blind man saw much more than Oedipus has. The stubbornness of Oedipus to see what is laid down before him caused much suffering to his people, which was his duty to protect being the King. Any man with more common sense would have figured it all out because the play certainly did not lack for clues.

By the end of the play Oedipus will cast out his eyes. Is this fit punishment for his refusal to see the clues Does taking his own eyes make all the sufferings of the people go away Was there any logical point to it except a heros quest for self-vindication.

One of the most famous characters in American tall tales is Paul Bunyan, and one of the most well-loved recounts  the time he discovered his blue ox which he called Babe. It is said that one day during the Winter of the Blue Snow  it was reportedly so cold that the snow turned blue  Paul  Bunyan was walking in the woods when he heard a funny sound between a bleat and a snort. Looking down he saw a teeny-tiny baby blue ox just a hopping about in the snow and snorting with rage on account of he was too short to see over the drifts (American Tall Tales). Paul was  so amused and impressed with the stubornness of this little thing that he took it home with him. Just like anything else that stayed in his camp, it eventually grew to giant proportions. But because of Babes immense size and complimentary strength, he was a great help with chores in the camp, be it drying off clothes strung on a line across his horns, or straightening out twisted logging roads. Then Bessie the Yeller Cow came into Babes life. Also growing into an enormous yet appealing size, Bessie could produce all the dairy products for the lumber camp . . . made enough butter from her cream to grease the giant pancake griddle and sometimes there was enough left over to butter the toast (American Tall Tales). At first, Babe and Bessie were at odds when it came to the  weather, the former preferring the cold, the latter happier with warmth.  Thankfully,  Paul was able to work out a system for them both in the end.

I found this tale on www.americantalltales.netid3.html. I think this story has endured the test of time because even though it comes across as very simple and straightforward, it is a great source of entertainment.  It paints such vivid pictures of its outlandish yet colorful characters. The situations are very humorous and outrageous, the obvious exaggeration is wildly amusing because it is unmistakably impossible, yet the reader allows himself to be lured into the rest of the tale, if only to find out how much more ridiculous it can get. It also serves as an escape for the reader because impossible tasks can be accomplished by Paul, Babe, and Bessie, mostly because of their immense size and strength. They are able to come up with ludicrously funny solutions to problematic situations, that can only be possible with a stretch of the imagination. The story likewise provides a comical picture of how parts of America came about, which probably sounds much more exciting than the truth. To quote from the same tale, Paul also used Babe to pull the heavy tank wagon . . . until one day the tank sprang a leak that trickled south and became the Mississippi River.

Funny stories will always have a following, if only for the amusement they provide. They oftentimes rescue us from the tediousness brought about by routine in our lives. Add to that the presence of folk heroes, and a bit of history and geography, and the result is surely a finely spun tale.

The Notorious Jumping Frog of Calaveras County by Mark Twain
This classic tale by Twain is probably unlike the tales of Paul Bunyan, in the sense that it does not directly narrate the interesting adventures of the characters. It is written in a style wherein the narrator encases the story in a letter this is called an epistolary format of a framed story (Howard).  However, the presence of the usual humor and exaggeration in a typical American tall tale remains.  In this tale though, the humor is more of a sardonic nature

I have a lurking suspicion that Leonidas W. Smiley is a myth that my friend
never knew such a personage and that he only conjectured that if I asked old
Wheeler about him, it would remind him of his infamous Jim Smiley, and he
would go to work and bore me to death with some exasperating reminiscence
of him as long and as tedious as it should be useless to me. If that was the design,
it succeeded. (Twain)

The exaggeration is provided by the notorious frog himself, Daniel Webster, who could supposedly outjump other frogs in the county.  But his owner, Smiley, was fooled by a stranger when the latter took this bet, and then he got the frog out and pried his mouth open . . .  filled him full of quail-shot . . . and set him on the floor (Twain).  Smiley, meanwhile, was searching for another frog for the stranger. Naturally, Daniel was too heavy to jump, so Smiley lost the bet. This tale bears the same ingredients of humor, exaggeration and vivid imagery

Then he says, One-two-three-git and him and the feller touched up the frogs from
behind, and the new frog hopped off lively, but Danl give a heave, and hysted up
his shoulders-so-like a Frenchman, but it warnt no use-he couldnt budge he was
planted as solid as a church, and he couldnt no more stir than if he was anchored out.
(Twain)

The 1920s and the 1930s marks a period in American History known as the Harlem Renaissance. It is the time when Blacks showcased their talents in literature and the arts and were somehow able to establish a name for themselves. Among the Black writers of this time was Countee Cullen who wrote A Brown Girl Dead in the late 1920s, perhaps as a positive response to the idea of fostering cultural unity between Blacks and Whites during the Harlem Renaissance. An expanded reading of the poem shows that the poem is indeed broader than its title and that the author himself and his life have greatly influenced the theme.

Expanded ReadingAnalysis

5. Countee Cullen was a poet during the Harlem Renaissance and had the peak of his career as a poet in the 1920s. His poem, A Brown Girl Dead, is a poem about racism, which was the topic he mainly wrote on.

This particular poem included some references to religion and the religious ceremony for the dead, perhaps because Cullen himself has been raised as a Methodist since he was a child and was in fact even adopted by a Reverend of the Methodist Church.

In the poem, there was also a mention of the word white which contrasts the word brown in the title, which may symbolize a merging of blacks and whites in society. And with this, the dead girl in the poem seems to be happy for she would dance and sing to see herself tonight (Cullen). Cullens seemingly happy and positive, or less negative, treatment of racism in this poem may have been influenced by the fact that he attended a high school mainly composed of white boys, and during which, Cullen somehow felt that he was not that alienated for he achieved greatly. His achievements were not only in citywide poetry contests but also as Vice President of his class, an editor of the school magazine, and a member of the Arista Honor Society. He also attended New York University and Harvard, and was married just prior to the writing of this poem. The tone of the poem seems positive because of the fact that despite the struggle against racism during Cullens time, he himself seemed to have been more privileged than the other blacks.

A Brown Girl Dead was actually written in 1928 in a collection of poetry known as The Ballad of the Brown Girl, the year when Cullen was first married. This may be an explanation for the reference of the wedding ring in the poem.

6. The title of the poem, A Brown Girl Dead, clearly tells us that the one who died was a black girl. However, the overall tone of the poem, especially the last lines, speaks of happiness, and this greatly contrasts with the otherwise gloomy and morbid title.

7. The speaker or narrator of the poem is clearly inside the poem and seem to be one of the visitors during the wake. Nevertheless, the last two lines of each stanza seem to be the speakers own thoughts and not necessarily something he can see during the wake. The speaker may be a Methodist for his optimism in death seems to reflect the Methodist belief of a blissful death.

8. This poem seems to be representative of the period in which it was written  the Harlem Renaissance. The poem brings up the idea of racism but not necessarily in a bad light but in a sort of freedom. As we can see in the poem, the death of the Brown Girl seemed to be the only way for her to be laid out in white, and she is happy about it. This sort of symbolic merging of black and white is clearly indicative of the Harlem Renaissance where Blacks have finally found their voice and have somehow established ties with the Whites by showing them who they were and what they were capable of. In the poem, the death of the Brown Girl and her wearing of a white dress seems like a moment of transition and personal celebration.

9. The poem seems to be set in the memorial grounds where the dead girl is to be buried. The white candles and the white roses as well as the mention of the line Dark Madonna of the grave she rests (Cullen) all indicate that the girl is about to be buried. There is, however, no mention of the people attending the funeral service. Therefore it can be that the funeral is privately attended or the dead girl is still in her house.

10. The theme of this poem may be the joy from the union between Blacks and Whites. The death of the girl in the poem, as well as the symbolic adornment of everything white, may be symbolic of this transition and that Cullen may have viewed the Harlem Renaissance not only as a very positive personal experience for him but also a great opportunity for Blacks to be recognized by Whites and thus establish cultural unity with them. The theme cannot be that of the gloom of death itself for there is celebration at the end of the poem as the dead girl would dance and sing to see herself tonight (Cullen), and that even Lord Death has found her sweet (Cullen), which indicates a seemingly positive experience. However, it should be noted that the line Her mother pawned her wedding ring (Cullen) in order to purchase the white dress may symbolize the idea of Cullen that such a cultural union between Blacks and Whites may entail great sacrifice, maybe on the part of the Blacks. In short, in order to create such unity, Blacks may have to make the first move and may even have to risk important things such as their wedding rings, which may represent marriage or personal property.

Contrast with African American Experience prior to 1900
If we compare Cullens A Brown Girl Dead with Harriet Beecher Stowes 1851 classic masterpiece Uncle Toms Cabin, the former stands out as a rather more positive portrayal of the plight of Blacks in America while the latter remains as a tragic account of the horrors of slavery. The pain and injustice against Blacks reflect the theme of Uncle Toms Cabin. The happiness experienced by the dead brown girl in Cullens poem is no match for the mental and physical torture that the African American slaves Eliza, George and especially Uncle Tom had to go through in Stowes novel.

Conclusion
Countee Cullens A Brown Girl Dead is a literary work that speaks of a period of transition from racism to a sort of cultural merging between Blacks and Whites. There may be a number of factors that make it stand out as a more positive work on racism compared to works on slavery prior to 1900. Perhaps one of the factors is that it was written by a man whose background was not as poor and unprivileged as his African American ancestors. However, more importantly, it was written during the Harlem Renaissance when finally the once muffled Negro slave voice was finally heard and somehow honored by America.

Good Country People is one of the most sought after works of Flannery O Connor. It is said to be the biography of OConnor but she never claimed it to be such. The novel Good Country People seems to reflect the current situation and emotional status of O Connor while she was writing the novel, and if it is not in fact her biography, her emotion at that time has influenced the novel greatly.

Flannery OConnor has lived only until her 40s her lupus has taken the best of her and has taken one of the finest writers of short story in the 20th century. Flannery OConnors lupus became active when she was working on her first novel, She was stricken with this incurable disease in 1950 while at work on her first novel (Baym 2568). After having lupus, she went home to be taken care of by her mother. Her mother is a catholic and she too sees the same views. Flannery OConnor was never ashamed of her religion, she is a catholic and proud of it, she tries incorporating it in her works like in Wise Blood.

The Good Country People is not a romantic novel the readers should not dwell on the image that Joy-Hulga Hopewell and Manley Pointer would end up together and live happily ever after. Good country people means that they have a barrier of innocence surrounding them and that they like living their life simple, no glamour good country people are fine living in a farm and tending to their livestock, the fast pace of the city does not attract them like most people do. The novel wants its readers to discover the innocence of Joy-Hulga in gaining experiences in life, her struggle in breaking the barrier of being a good country people, and her belief in nothing as an atheist.

Analysis of Good Country People
The plot started with Mrs. Freeman and Mrs. Hopewell in the kitchen discussing about the daughters of Mrs. Freeman. Mrs. Hopewell has been proud of the Freeman family, she has said that Glynese and Carramae Freeman are two of the finest girls she has ever met, Glynese and Carramae were two of the finest girls she knew and that Mrs. Freeman was a lady.

Mrs. Hopewell viewed the Freeman family as simple people, saying to let go of people who are simple, good country people. Good country people symbolize the simplicity of life in the South, folks who would rather farm and be ordinary, people not being extravagant unlike the people in cities.

Joy, the daughter of Mrs. Hopewell, has an artificial leg. She was accidentally shot in the leg at a hunting vacation when she was 10. Joy has a PhD in Philosophy Mrs. Hopewell does not think it is the way of good country people to be philosophers. She wanted to introduce her daughter as something else, a doctor or a nurse, but she could not introduce her daughter as a philosopher. Mrs. Hopewell knows that Joy is a bright child and that Joy knows a lot of things, but she also feels that every year, she grew less like other people and becomes more bitter and reserved. At one point, she even shouted at her own mother in the middle of dinner, not bothering to explain what made her so mad, Woman do you ever look inside Do you ever look inside and see what you are not God.

Joy thinks that she is better that the good country people and that she can asses the character of a person just by looking at them and judging them because her brain is more superior than theirs. What she forgot is to asses her own character. It is her who does not see inside a person because despite her treating her mother rude, Mrs. Hopewell still tried to understand her and support her decisions.

Joy is always bitter and has legally changed her name to Hulga without the consent of her mother. Mrs. Hopewell thinks that Joy only changed her name because she felt like she does not deserve the name Joy and has changed it to something horrid to match her current situation. Joy-Hulga has an artificial leg, wears eyeglasses and does not walk often her mother assumed that it was her appearance that made her change her name. The only person who calls her Hulga is Mrs. Freeman.

Mrs. Freeman is the observer in the group she is the only one who truly understands Joy-Hulga and watches the family from afar. She is by far the only one who knows each character in the house of Mrs. Hopewell.

The household of Mrs. Hopewell received a visitor, a man who sells bibles, and although Mrs. Hopewell declined and said that her daughter is an atheist and would not let her keep a bible in the parlor, the man still insisted that she buy one. Mrs. Hopewell rejected his offer but the man simply did not leave her house. The mans name is Manly Pointer, and he is from Willohobie, not even from a place, just from near a place.

Joy-Hulga and Manly lived their lives oppositely. While Manly believes in faith, Joy-Hulga does not believe in anything. Joy-Hulga focused herself on studying philosophy, Manly has no interest to go to college. The only thing that got Joy-Hulgas attention to center over Manly is when he declared that he has a heart problem and would probably not live long just like Joy-Hulga. Joy-Hulgas mother, Mrs. Hopewell, has stated that her daughter has a weak heart and would not live long she said that if Joy-Hulga was blessed enough, she can live up to 45 years.

Joy-Hulga become close to Manly, so close that they even go on dates. In one of their walks, Joy-Hulga asked why Manly always carries her valise, he said You can never tell when youll need the word of God, Hulga. On that same date, Manly tried and successfully kissed Joy-Hulga on the lips, without a word he kissed her heavily and continued like it never happened they have discussed how Joy-Hulga is not saved and other religious things. After a while, he sat closer to Joy-Hulga and took off her glasses, carefully slipping them in his pocket and continued kissing her. At first, she did not respond to his kisses but as the mood went by, she started kissing him she said that his lips and breath were similar to a childs breath and lips, His breath was clear and sweet like a childs and the kisses were sticky like a childs.

Manly then insisted that if Joy-Hulga wanted more of what they were doing, she must say she loves him, but Joy-Hulga said that if you use the word loosely, you might say that. But its a word I use. I dont have illusions. Im one of those people who see through to nothing. Manly still insisted that she say it, but when Joy-Hulga rebutted that she does not need to say it, Manly thought of other ways she can show it. Manly has requested to see her wooden leg, and when she showed her wooden leg. He insisted that she show him how to remove it and she did.

Manly removed her wooden leg and taunted her Joy-Hulga asked for her leg back, but he never gave it. Instead, he placed it in his suitcase with the bible on each end of the wooden leg, and as he departed, he said that Joy-Hulga should not bother looking for him because he gave them a fake name and that he has gotten things from other people the same way he got Joy-Hulgas wooden leg. Before he finally disappeared, he left Joy-Hulga something to think about, you aint so smart. I have been believing in nothing ever since I was born.

The bible Manly kept holding on symbolizes his cover, since the bible is sacred Mrs. Hopewell and Joy-Hulga assumed that Manly was a decent man, making them fall blindly to his tricks. Even at the end of the novel, Mrs. Hopewell assumed that he was just good country people, trying to sell bibles in the village.

Analysis of Joy-Hulga
Name
Mrs. Hopewell did not like the idea that Joy would change her name into something as hideous as Hulga she thought that Joy has to compensate her name with her current situation, having a wooden leg, wearing glasses and never having good times.

Ruth Holsen argued with the belief of Mrs. Hopewell and has disputed the fact that Hulga is the ugliest name anyone could find. Holsen said that OConner named Joy, Hulga, because of her personality and not because it was ugly. She said that Joy picked Hulga because, the full genius of its fitness had struck her.

Eyeglass and PhD
The eyeglass of Joy-Hulga symbolizes her intelligence. When Manly removed his glasses, she could not see her blindness is associated with being stripped of her intelligence. It can be compared to love in the life of OConnor, that is, no matter how wise she is, she has fallen blindly in love with Langkjaer. She sent him letters despite him not replying. In one of OConnors letters to Langkjaer, she has written that her mother told her that it was not right for a woman to keep writing to a man who does not respond, My mother dont think it is proper for me to send mail when J dont receive it. The only time Langkjaer wrote back was when he told her he was engaged. After Langkjaer revealed that he was getting married, OConnors tone shifted from writing I to we, are glad that you plan to return South and we want you to let us help you make your wife at home in this part of the country.

Kate Oliver also agrees that the glasses symbolize Joy-Hulgas intelligence, Stripped of eyeglasses and any relevant use for her education, her true intellectual blindness is revealed. Joy-Hulga has a PhD in Philosophy, but when Manly took off her glasses, she fell blindly to his tricks, allowing him to manipulate her without thinking of the consequences.

Wooden leg
Joy-Hulga is often compared to the novelist herself. Her wooden leg is compared to her soul or heart. In the novel, she taught Manly how to remove her wooden leg and then allowed him to detach her wooden leg. Mark Bosco thinks that the wooden leg symbolizes the heart of OConnor and Manly taking her leg and leaving her can be compared to Langkjaer taking her heart with him as he departed to Denmark. Mark Bosco said that Joy-Hulga cried upon losing her leg because no one has ever touched it, much like the heart of OConnor, she had never loved anyone like Langkjaer, no one ever touched it but her. She took care of it as someone else would his soul, in private and almost with her own eyes turned away.

Writers like Kate Oliver indicate that the wooden leg symbolizes the religion in the life of Joy-Hulga. The false leg symbolizes the faith of Joy-Hulga. Since Joy-Hulga is an atheist, her bond in faith simply does not exist or that she just had faith on nothing, the false leg with false religionwith the study of philosophical nihilism is an empty and soulless expression of human spirituality.

Conclusion
The novel Good Country People may or may not be about the life of OConnor but it did give clear perspective of the life Joy-Hulga and her struggle to be an individual, not like other people who her mother calls good country people. Her innocence in relationships has lead her to be excited upon receiving the kiss and speeding up the process of understanding relationships. But after finding out that she has been tricked by the man she loved, she finds herself traumatized and lost. All her knowledge became useless and all that was left is emptiness, blank, nothing.

OConnor wanted to emphasize the religion she believes in. Being an atheist means that she believes in nothing, she lost her leg which symbolizes her heart and soul she lost her glasses which symbolizes her intelligence. In the end, all she had left is nothing.

People may perceive that a home and a house is the same, but by reading the novel deeply, readers would come to realize that the interpretation of a home in the novel is different from the interpretation of a house to Esperanza.

The protagonist name is Esperanza, she was young hen the novel started and as the novel progress, the progress of her creativity and personality is created. The novel doesnt only focus on the protagonist itself, it also wants the readers to know how and what influence the young protagonist in her everyday interaction with life. The novel has showed its readers a glimpse of the neighborhood where Esperanzas family lived and other families who lived in Mango Street the novel also showed different women in which Esperanza observes and interacts with, gaining knowledge and insights on how she would soon live her life, the different situations of women shown in the novel can be her if she walks the same path theyve gone through.

The author of the novel has similarities with the protagonist, like Esperanza, Sandra Cisneros is also a Spanish descendant that lived her life in American territory. The novel has been sold over two million copies and has also acquired quite a few critics most of the critics felt like the male portrayal in the novel were cruel and unjust. Sandra Cisneros claimed that since she is a woman, she cannot write the experience of male Mexican-American and that she only writes what she has seen and experienced.

The novel wants the readers to analyze the importance of having a home and how it women are treated in their houses, how men sees them and wants them to act, the novel also wants to show its readers the power of words, the impact of knowing them and not knowing them.

Analytical interpretation of the novel
The novel starts with its protagonist Esperanza, they have traveled and stayed in Mango Street, because the previews apartment they have stayed in have leaks in it and the owner doesnt want to renovate, let alone fix the leaks in the house. The house they are currently staying in is in a neighborhood filled with Mexican-American or rather Latinos like them, Mango Street is the name of the street and it was the first house owned by the parents of Esperanza.

Although Mango Street is filled with Latinos, Esperanza feels out of place, doesnt have friends and someone that can compete or at least have the same level of thinking as she have and when she finally did have friends, they werent in her same wave lengths, but it was better than having no friend at all.

After a year of stay in Mango Street, a lot has happened to Esperanza, she met new neighbors and observed some, and she realized that even a nun can make her feel embarrassed about her familys financial status. She has seen a lot of women that time, most of which are caged by their husbands and fathers most of these women tend to rebel, but some of them dont do a thing, even if that means being beaten and harassed.

Character analysis and their idea of having a home instead of a house
In the novel, Esperanza has longed to have a home instead of the house they currently live in, most of the women in Mango Street also feels the same, having a house doesnt necessarily mean that it is their home. Esperanza do not want to be like the women in Mango Street who are being subjected by men, Esperanza can reject stereotypical roles imposed on women by patriarchy yet at the same time feel solidarity with the women caught in such restrictive roles (Rivera 1).

Marin
Marin lives with her cousin and baby sits them, she is not allowed to live the house and focuses her time on teaching the kids how to interact with boys. Marin has a fianc back in Puerto Rico but she often dream of a time when someone preferably a rich American can sweep her off her feet.

Even though Marin lived in a house, it is not her idea of a home Marin wanted to be independent, since her relatives that is not allowing her to explore or even go out to interact with other people. The idea of a home to Marin is to live comfortably in America where her relatives cant reach her she wanted to escape the life she has now. She often dances in alleys hoping that someone will someday reach for her and give her a home and not just a house.

Alicia
Alicias mother died and in their culture, Alice was to replace the role of her mother in their family and do all the domestic chores. Unlike Marin who dances her way out of their current situation, Alicia went to college and despite his father arguing that it is not right for a woman like her to go to college. According to her father she should stop educating herself and concentrate all her efforts into the domestic chores. Alicia did not obey his father and chooses to divide her time in studying and doing her responsibility. Her father not allowing her to do broaden her knowledge makes her see their home as a house and as Alicia gets older, the more she wants to escape the life she is currently living.

Esperanza (great grandmother of Esperanza)
Esperanza was named after her grandmother they are both born in the year of the horse. Her grandmother was described to be like wild horse, but in the Mexican community, women are not allowed to be powerful and strong, she was tamed and married to someone she doesnt love after being married, all she did was stare at the window.

Esperanza was afraid of inheriting not only her grandmothers name but also her place in the window, I have inherited her name, but I dont want to inherit her place by the window (Cisneros 11). Not wanting to end up like her grandmother, she changed her name into something she thinks suits her more. A critic of Cisneros explained why Esperanza wanted to change her name to something else, she said that she resist the future she sees in her name, she is afraid that if she continues to keep her name, she would end up like her grandmother, Her desire to baptize herself under a different name reflects her resistance to cultural imposition and the suppression of female self-identity (Rivera 1).

Rafaella
Rafaella who is beautiful is often kept from the public, her husband doesnt want people looking at her in fear that she might be taken away from him, and so whenever his guest would arrive in their place, he would look her up in the attic. Rafaelas marriage is a sham, she was never free to do what she wants, she was treated like an object, he doesnt even allow her to go out and enjoy her life her only interaction with the outside world is when she ask Esperanza to buy her papaya juice. Rafaela was portrayed to have a house, but she can never treat it as a home because she feels trapped in it.

Sally
Sally is a pretty girl with a protective father her father doesnt want Sally to end up like her older siblings who have married to early. Sallys father often beats her whenever she associates herself with boys and Sally often covers for her father.

Sally is the type of girl Esperanza admired, she though Sally was like the women she idolized at movies, someone who would seduce men and live them hanging. But as she gets closer to Sally, she realized that unlike the movie stars she idolized, Sally seduces men and allows them to manipulate and use her body she is comfortable having intercourses with men and being adored by them.

The way Sally sees it is when men use her, she felt love, cared for and feel free, unlike when she in their house, her father often beats her and make her feel as if she was caged. Her fathers greatest fear did arrive, she eloped with a salesman who has taken her to another state to marry her, and she was barely fourteen. Sally thought that by marrying the salesman, her dream of having a home was finally fulfilled, but it wasnt, her husband also beats her and doesnt allow her to interact with other people, just like her father.

Minerva
Minerva was probably the closes to Esperanza, like Esperanza she was an artist, she is older than Esperanza a couple of years and married, she gave birth to two children. Her husband left her, but he sometimes return only to torment her family, she is often beaten by her husband but despite that she still takes him back. When she was beaten real hard, she went to Esperanza place and asked her for advice, but since Esperanza has not yet experience to be married, let alone have a relationship with a guy, she refuses to answer and told her that she dont know how to respond. The readers can see that even though it is Minerva who own the house, she still dont see it at her home it is because she is often beaten in her house and instead of feeling comfortable with it, she feel distant and hurt in it.

Analysis of Esperanza

Esperanza
Although the house they live in now is bigger than the place they use to stay in, Esperanza cannot see their house in Mango Street her home, she wanted something bigger and in a better place, not in one of the most populated place in America, not in Mango Street. She wants to get out of Mango Street as much as possible, she wanted to get away from everything else, she want her freedom and Mango Street is full of repression, the people who lived there are either repressing someone or being repressed, she is also afraid that she might end up just like everyone else in Mango street, One day I will say good-bye to Mango. I am too strong for her to keep me here forever (Cisneros 110).

She want her own space, she wants to be independent and for Rivera, it was one of the most poetic thing in the novel, Esperanzas dreams and illusion of a real home come forth in one of the most poetically evocative sections of the work (Rivera 1). She wanted to live on her own, without anyone, her sense of independence is coming together, My books and my stories. ... Only a house quiet as snow, a space for myself to go, clean as paper before the poem (Cineros 108). For Sanborn, Esperanzas wanting to separate herself from the world shows the meaning of independence for her, She associates the sensation of not belonging to those spaces with a feeling of freedom and relief from pain.

A neighbor of Esperanza and her friends gave the kids heels to play with, and they did, they wore the heels and walked around the neighborhood, they liked the idea of being instant adults upon wearing the heels, but since the world has also viewed them as an adult, they were harassed like one. That was the first time the kids have encountered men at their worst, objecting them.

When Esperanza had a chance to meet the women in Mango Street, she observed them and through observing them, she slowly builds her character, she has seen how men has treated the women in Mango Street and she distance herself from that future. One of them was Sally, she initially admired her because she though she was like the women she idolized on movies the women were feminine and often reject men, Sally was the opposite, instead of rejecting men, she lure them in. Thomas Matchie has also seen Sally as someone who betrays Esperanza repeatedly in the novel even when Esperanza wanted to defend her from men objectifying her, she trades the boys kisses for her lost keys, while all concerned laugh at Esperanza for trying to defend her friend with a brick.

When Esperanza grandmother came to their home, she did not leave the third floor and even though she was taunted to be too fat to even go down, she stayed in, staring at the window. Esperanza unlike other people surrounding her grandmother understands that the reason she doesnt want to go down is because she doesnt speak English and that made her terrified to go down and interact with other people. Her Aunt Lupe was also taunted by kids, but she was the only one who encouraged Esperanza to continue on with her writings, keep writing, it will keep you free. At that time the girl did not know what she meant, but in the end Esperanza says she sets me free. These women are making her think about the power of words, even though it was not stated directly, Esperanza knew that if she doesnt use words she will be left powerless like her grandmother who has recently traveled to America, and if she use it well, it will set her free like her Aunt Lupe has predicted, You must remember to keep writing, Esperanza. You must keep writing. It will keep you free.

Esperanza did not only observe the women in her society, she observes everything. Marin met a guy who has invited her to go out, he was tragically killed and Esperanza observed that after Gerardo died, anyone is objected to it, and even though Gerardo worked hard to gain money to be sent back to his family in Mexico, he was killed tragically just like that, his name vanishes from the face of the earth, and since he did not make friends, his family would never even know his dead, She has visions of the violence done to Geraldo, another wetback, who rented two room flats and sleeping rooms. killed one night by a hitand-run driversimply disappeared.

Towards the end of the novel, Esperanza has evolved to a person who begins to understand people, she is no longer a kid who wants to be separated from everyone else just because they did not pass her standard, and her idea of a home no longer relates to her being alone, she now welcomes her past in it.

Conclusion
The House on Mango Street  has shown it readers how Latinos lived in America, it also let the viewers have a glimpse of how women are treated in Mango Street and how a child evolves to a woman who thinks for herself and analysis the situation first before acting. The growth of Esperanza from wanting to be alone in her home has evolved to someone who wants to live in a home that welcomes bums, someone who doesnt forget who she is and treasured the moments in her past.

The 1880s to the 1940s marks a period in American Literature known as Realism and Naturalism. This was the time when most literary works reflected the ideas of pessimism and determinism, and where events and even God oppose human free will or remain indifferent to human desires. One author and poet of this era was Stephen Crane. Crane published A God in Wrath in 1905 in a collection of poems called The Black Rider and Other Lines. The poem, which is about a god torturing a man, reflects the recurring theme of naturalism with instances of pessimism, determinism, and detachment.

Naturalism in A God in Wrath
Pessimism. Pessimism, or the seeming inevitability of the occurrence of negative events, fills every line of the A God in Wrath. In the poem, the very fact that a god is punishing the man is perhaps the greatest indication of pessimism considering that no man can ever be greater than a god. Therefore, no man can ever escape a gods wrath and so a man who is suffering from it will surely suffer till the end. Indeed nothing can be more pessimistic than that.

One particular line, He cuffed him loudly (Crane), indicates that the man is bound and has no chance of escape ever. Moreover, one should take note that these cuffs are put by a god and therefore impossible to get rid of. Also, the cuffs are in the form of thunderous blows that rang and rolled over the earth (Crane). This means that these are not just simple shackles that simply require a key to remove but that they are as complicated as they are difficult to detach.

Perhaps one more indication of pessimism in the poem is the presence of a crowd of people who are not shown to help the man, or are portrayed as helpless creatures that do nothing but observe and add to the mans injury by saying Ah, what a wicked man (Crane). The man in A God in Wrath is already in deep suffering when All people came running (Crane). Nevertheless, although he screamed and struggled (Crane), the crowd, instead of helping him, condemns him more by calling him wicked. In real life, one can see people who not only ignore those who ask for their help but even regard them as evil. Such is the picture of the society that Crane may have wanted to show through the element of pessimism in the poem.

Determinism. Determinism in A God in Wrath centers around the idea that the man has no choice but to accept the wrath of god and eventually his own fate. The whole poem is a testament to the absence of free will as indicated in the mans useless struggle to escape. Mans free will is figuratively strangled when the god cuffed him loudly (Crane) and that although he screamed and struggled (Crane), which means that he wants to assert himself and his free will, no help arrives and there is no escape.

Perhaps the mans last chance of escape is the people who came running (Crane), and maybe he smiles at the fact that all of them seem to come to his aid. Unfortunately, it seems that he is predestined to suffer and perhaps even die of his suffering when he finds out later on that the people who come running actually do nothing but say Ah, what a wicked man (Crane). Crane here shows that no amount of screams and struggles from the man, or every man in general, can change the course of nature, the will of a god, or mans destiny to suffer.

Detachment. The stone-cold objectivity in Stephen Cranes tone is felt in the poem in his use of such nameless characters as a god, a man, and all people. The absence of a capital g in god, except perhaps in the title, clearly indicates that this god is not necessarily the Christian God but perhaps any form of deity considered to be a symbol of cruel and inhuman dictatorship. It can even be religion itself which is shown here that makes man suffer.

One can also see that in the poem, the man is unnamed, which means that it can represent any human being particularly those who seem to be experiencing a hopeless struggle.

Lastly, the phrase all people (Crane) may represent everyone else in the world of the man who suffers. Also, the fact that all of them came running (Crane) tells us that they are united in their action, and that when they all together cried, Ah, what a wicked man (Crane), one can see that people in general are wicked and often express their ridicule and cruelty in unison.

On the whole, the element of detachment in Cranes A God in Wrath tells us that the situation portrayed in the poem and its painful events are not exclusive to the characters in it but also to every suffering human being.

Conclusion
Stephen Cranes A God in Wrath is a poem that portrays the elements of the era of Literary Realism and Naturalism, which include pessimism, determinism and detachment. Pessimism is reflected by mans seemingly unending struggle with a god that is impossible to conquer and with people who are brutally indifferent to his suffering. Determinism is present in the lines that show that his fate seems inevitable and that no amount of struggle and will to survive may seem enough to free the man in the poem from his suffering. Finally, a sense of detachment is expressed by the fact that the characters in the poem are unnamed. Hence, this makes the particular literary work a mirror of what actually goes on in the life of every human being who suffers and how much pain he has to bear with the wrath of a cruel god and the inaction of his indifferent fellow humans.

As he approached the village, he met a number of people, but none that he knew. The pounding in his head from the ghostly grog was second only to the disorientation he felt seeing the town that was no longer his town. The Inn where he had so often sat and discussed the answers to lifes questions was now brightly lit, with the marquee promoting Motel 6, well leave a colonial lamp lit for you. The streets were filled with British soldiers, in full redcoat regalia, but not in wartime solace, rather in a friendly game of cricket with the town children. There seemed to be a definite lack of animosity between the people and the occupying army. They seemed to be friendly with each other. As he went on towards his homestead, he found himself wondering if Wolf would be there waiting for him on the porch, tail wagging in excited welcome. Then a dismal and horrid realization came to his mind, what if instead of Wolf, it was Dame Van Winkle, angrily tapping her foot, fully prepared to excoriate him for the time he had spent in the wood. He walked up to the porch and breathed a great sigh of relief when he saw Wolf, fast asleep.

Somewhat older, but still alert, Wolf perked up when he heard Rips footfalls crunching the fallen leaves. Well look who decided to show up said the dog, in amazingly clear English diction. Rip was taken aback, was his dog really talking Must be a residual of his last nights drinking. Excuse me replied Rip. Are you speaking to me Wolf tilted his head quizzically, and laughed. Of course Rip, dont you remember your old friend Wolf Ive been wondering when you would show up, youve been gone quite a while. Youre in luck though chap, Dame Van Winkle is presently indisposed, so if youd like to run off quickly, she may not even see you. Rip stood there for a moment and finally gasped with excitement, She is not here Oh, what a thrill Rip ran through the house with a bag and hurriedly grabbed all his belongings. Now Wolf, if you feel the way I feel about Dame Van Winkle you will join me and we can leave town and never come back. Wolf sat there for a moment and put his head down. For this moment Rip actually thought his fellow companion for over the years would not follow him in his lead and stay. Wolf finally arose and started trotting off into the street.

Along the way, Wolf began to talk more, Are you sure about this  He asked, You might not like what you are about to find out added the dog.  Rip, still uncomfortable with the dog talking to him, gave the creature a sly look as if questioning how the animal knew anything about him or his life when it did not quite seem to give a damn before.  Rip lifted his free hand to his chin in silent thought and noticed that his stubble had become more than just stubble instead, they have grown into long strands that seemed to occupy the best of his face.  Perhaps he had just forgotten to shave, he thought to himself.  Along the way, they passed the window of a candy store and Rip, suddenly feeling excruciatingly hungry, stopped to look at the goodies through the glass pane.  While looking at the candies through the window Rip noticed something else.  Other than the solid reds, yellows, and browns of the candy, the glass pane seemed to reflect back the image of a man he could not recognize.  All the color from the mans hair in the reflection seemed to be drained into the candy.  The man he was looking at had boring, salt and pepper hair.  Rip could not help but notice the striking resemblance of the man to his father.  Rip walked in the store and the store owner, who also had salt-and-pepper hair, looked at him like he was some old acquaintance.

Rip the store owner asked, to which he smiled in response, Why, you look like the years have taught you a lot.  Added the store owner Rip wondered what he meant by this.  Rip turned around without buying any candy.  He smiled confident that a life without Dame Van Winkle would be leaps better than the one he currently had.

Passing by the neighbors thinking life was finally going to change, everything would finally be alright. No more Dame Van Winkle was enough to make him scream in joy. Rip Van Winkle, is that you He heard from afar. Is that my Old Rip Van Winkle Rip wanted to run, he wanted to escape her but he turned his head and to his amazement he noticed a Dame Winkle with a young chap holding her hand. Oh dear It is you Oh my Rip I thought you were long gone, were have you been Rip wanted to run, but soon felt a sting to the heart. Who was this young chap And why was he with his wife Rip looked down at Wolf searching for a way out of this. Who is this man And why are you with him What does he have that I dont Tell me woman Tell me now Rip screamed. Dame looked at him in astonishment, Are you serious It has been 20 years Rip. There were days on end on which I cried for you, and stayed up late thinking you would finally come home, but you never did. And my grass, oh dear lord, my grass became horrendous and hired this young chap to take care of it since you never did Rip stood there with his mouth open and she continued to yell. Oh and did he take care of it. He took very good care of it, and me.

Rip walked away in disgust and then all of sudden he turned his head to see Wolf follow Dame with the young chap. Rip went to an old tree to take in what had just over-whelmed him. After deep thought, he decided to take this as a wake-up call to go home and take care of business. He worked alongside the young chap, busting his rump to keep up. His wife of years decided that maybe, just maybe to give her old Rip a second chance. However, she could not part from her young lover, as his work could not be matched by any other. Rip, knowing this, felt his heart breaking in pieces, for he felt he could never measure up to this young lad. Low and behold, Rip came across an old Indian who had discovered a natural herb that worked like Viagra. Therefore, old Rip found out that he could in fact measure up to the young chap. Dame found out that her encounters with both guys separately was not enough, therefore one lonely night she secretly seduced two male lovers into the same room. Lets just say fireworks were going off in and around the house. Old Rips son and daughter, through this whole ordeal couldnt take the drama any longer. They secretly conspired to get rid of this young lad, so that maybe they could get their family back together. Unfortunately, this lad got wind of their plot and decided to get back at them all. He felt, if he couldnt have Dame for himself then to hell with them all. One night, when all was asleep, all of a sudden you hear a loud scream. The daughter had awoken to burning flames all over and as she tried to escape the burning house, she came across three charred bodies on crosses. With all the distraught, the daughter collapse and perished in the fire with the other family members.

Wait, Rip awoke with a sore noggin, come to find out he trip over a tree trunk and was knocked out for several hours. He and Wolf made their way back into town, to find out his nagging wife was still alive. Remember the part about the old Indian, that part came to fruition and the nagging Dame was no longer.

In Charles Chesnutts The Conjure Woman, Uncle Juliusa character who might be quite at home as a trickster figure in another storyuses humorous tales which are meant to question the narrators notions about race.  It is important that these critiques are often couched in humor not only does this help the narrator receive unpalatable or unflattering information, but it allows racial matters to be turned on their ears for white audiences that may find themselves too busy laughing to be upset.

One of the primary texts used to question racial assumptions is the story of Po Sandy.  This story concentrates on a man who is turned into a tree by a powerful goopher, and the revelation of the information prevents the narrator and his wife from using the lumber in the old school house.  Of course, the humorous ending shows that Julius had an intent to use the schoolhouse all along, and strongly implies that the entirety of his tale was bent towards this purpose.  To a casual reader enjoying this story for the first time, it may seem that Julius holds the real power over the unsuspecting narrator.  However, the story functions well as a critique of blackwhite power relations in a post-Civil War South Julius, ostensibly made equal in the eyes of the law, is still in a severe economic disadvantage compared to the narrator.  Since wealth is equivalent to power in the brutal economic realities of the time, the only way for Julius to attain power is to concern himself with the redistribution of the narrators wealth.  In short he is still effectively beholden to white culture, despite being emancipated.

As a racial critique, however, the conclusion of Mars Jeems Nightmare proves much more potent.  According to Julius, Mars Jeems is actually turned into a black man, which explains how well he treats slaves.  The ostensible moral is simply for white masters to not be overly cruel, but the implications seem much more sinister that the only way that whites will have true empathy with blacks is to be physically transformed into blacks.  Otherwise, blacks are characterized by whites as an unknown and unknowable other, beyond any actual understanding.  However, this text posits that the transformation necessary to understanding is open to any willing personthat the institution of slavery and racism can be undone brick by brick.  This message is certainly positive, but the symbolism should not be overlookedit takes an act of powerful magic to transform Mars Jeems, as opposed to a sentimental change of heart.  Magic serves as an intermediary between two diametrically opposed forces, highlighting the impossibility of individual race relations improving of their own accord.  There is also an overt call for political action in the nature and source of the magic Aunt Peggy.  As the titular conjure woman, she provides the magic necessary to transform whites through her, Chesnutt embeds a call for blacks to be the change they wish to see in the world, and transform the Jeems in their own life through the magic of solidarity, persuasion, and rhetoric.

The topic of maternity is viewed quite differently by Jacobs, Wilson, and Harper, though there are certainly familiar threads linking all three stories.  Jacobs Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl is arguably the view of maternity most recognizable by contemporary societyall of the suffering that she describes is mere background information to the immediate reality of her attempt to raise a family.  This is hammered home when she laments being separated from her grandmother and children, and when she is unable to free her daughter.  She also invites the reader to look at how her own maternal identity is threatened by constant sexual abuse, and later, economic abuse at the hands of cruel whites.  In this sense, her text is closer, thematically, to Wilsons Our Nig each one points out that legitimate attempts at maternity are actually thwarted by the very structure of institutionalized slavery, which is designed to break up families and highlights the ultimate Catch-22 white critics who decry black families as some kind of unknowable Other due to their differences, when many of those differences were effectively foisted on them by white culture.

Jacobs straightforward story is in striking contrast to Francis Harpers convoluted Iola Leroy, which places dramatic irony, miscegenation, and the Civil War into a strange soup.  For Harper, maternity is linked more to a discovery of femininity, which in turn is linked to the discovery of the truth by mending wounded soldiers, Leroy is able to come to terms with her own blackness.  It is worth noting that for Harper, maternity is also a political decision racial solidarity plays a part in Leroys choice of a mate, because (consciously or unconsciously) she feels a need to recreate the black family in a traditional dynamic, untainted by any aspects of slavery.  This is important because it emphasizes the need to create and celebrate a unique black culture, not for the nature of its exclusivity, but for its ability to stand proudly apart from the white hands that, not too long ago, were holding shackles.  In this sense, home is identified in the novel not as a specific place, but a state of mindan integration with ones true identity.  It serves as a kind of invitation for other blacks to discover who they are, and form bonds for solidarity to do otherwise is to foster an ongoing cultural Diaspora that never really goes away.

Harriet Wilsons Our Nig is unique because it seemingly defines maternity through negationthat is, it is easier to see the shape of maternity in its absence through the novel, rather than through its presence.  Specifically, Frado being abandoned by Tom illustrates Wilsons larger point that blacks were often denied reciprocal maternal identities because the nature of slavery and the nation that condoned it was not conducive to the formation of traditional families, and the bonds that came with them.  The final invocation to purchase her book points to the cyclical nature of everything it is through a kind of monetary reparations that slavery is not forgiven, but that black society can be set up in a way that supports the nuclear family.  She desires a world in which she can make a living as an author, and have a safe relationship with people she can trust.  However, Wilson has realized that she, herself, will have to create this world it will not come about on its own.