Starting from as early as the beginning of the twentieth century (Rice, 2003 Hein, 2001), the educational functions of museum exhibition were being explored by museum professionals. By and large, however, discussions centered on searching for innovative methods to arrange and display works in transparent cases, bases, and spaces for children to look at (Moore, 1941 Russel, 1956). Progressing to the mid-twentieth century, there were more indications in literature on how museum professionals drew upon education philosophy and developmental psychology to implement and to expand the possibility of educating children through exhibitions. Victor DAmicos experimentation of child-centered creative art teaching at the Childrens Art Carnival and Michael Spocks design of hands-on exhibitions at the Boston Childrens Museum are examples from the 1940s and 1950s. Today, child-centered learning, hands-on experiences, and experiential learning continue to be terms that are often used by museum professionals to characterize the kinds of exhibitions that they create for children.
In addition to incorporating concepts from educational philosophy and psychology, the field of museum study started to emerge in the 1990sscholars and researchers paid much closer attention to visitor experiences and what museums may do to support and enhance visitors learning in museums. Among a range of literature, Hein suggests museums acknowledge that learners construct knowledge either personally or socially. With this understanding of how visitors learn, designing constructivist exhibitions becomes necessary and inevitable (Hein, 1998).
In the literature review, I include concepts related specific to teaching and learning in childrens museums experiential learning, child-centered learning, hands-on learning, and play. I also bring in Heins specific theory of constructivist exhibitions, which may be applied to different types of museum exhibition content. In the study, the creation of childrens interactive art exhibitions will be examined through these lenses provided in the literature review. The result will also be organized and interpreted accordingly.
Experience and Education
When museum professionals design an interactive exhibition for children, we are providing them with a specific type of situation. Within the situation, we provide them with specific intellectual, perceptual, and physical experiences in order to support their learning in art. Interactive childrens exhibitions were rare to non-existent during Deweys time and were not considered or mentioned in his writing. However, it is worth considering Deweys thinking on art and experience and how it can be applied to interactive art exhibitions, both in terms of teaching principles and in terms of what children experience and learn. With this understanding, museum professionals will be able to create an educational experience for children.
According to Dewey (1934) experience is a continuous process because the interaction between people and the environment is an ongoing involvement in the process of living. However, this process sometimes is not experienced in a coherent way so it cannot be formed into an experience. Dewey further points out that the arts provide people with exemplary instances of an experience because when the arts are encountered, the experiencer, both the artist and the perceiver, undergoes a transformation evoked by the object experienced. Through the process, the experiencer gains a broadened perspective, a shift of attitude, and an increase of knowledge. Thus, the experience can be considered educative (Jackson, 1998).
In addition, Dewey (1934) also indicates that in the actual occurrence of an experience, it enhances intellectual, emotional, and practical responses. However, an experience is not a combination of these distinctive aspects. They are intertwined and become related to one another. For the purpose of this paper, I will briefly explain what Dewey means by intellectual, emotional, and practical Thinking as an Aesthetic Experience When a conclusion is reached at the end of a thinking process, it is reached as a continuous movement of subject-matters. In the process, certain concepts are challenged and broken others confirmed and carried onward. Doing as an Aesthetic Experience Dewey defines practical as overt doing. He sees two extremes of doing one end is the automatic, mechanical action the other is the uncertain, aimless action. In between the opposite ends, there is the kind of action that embodies our consciousness with a growing sense of meaning that processes, develops, and reaches a completion. A doing that encompasses the above qualities is an aesthetic experience. Emotions as Aesthetic Experience An experience moves toward maturation instead of fixation, because for this experience to occur, ones previous beliefs and understandings are often challenged, and other times enhanced. Within such a process, struggle and conflict at times are unavoidable and may be enjoyed. The emotions that Dewey refers to are not emotions that outbreaks and erupts as in a cry infant. What he refers to is the intimate nature of emotion the emotion that might unfold in a complex experience that progresses and changes. This kind of emotion takes part in an inclusive and enduring situation that involves the mind or the doing.
Progressive education and child-centered learning
Deweys critical thinking on curriculum and education made him the representative figure of the progressive education movement that started around 1915. The progressive education beliefs were embraced by museum educators such as Victor DAmico, who was considered a pioneer in creative art teaching. DAmico, the founder and director of the education department of the Museum of Modern art, indeed created one of the very first interactive childrens art exhibitions, the MoMA Childrens Art Carnival, in 1934.
Deweys notion of learning by doing has had a tremendous impact on education (Cremin, 1959 Jackson, 1998). In addition, his pedagogical ideas embraced by the progressive education movement have been applied to the field of museum education. Educational approaches of Newark Museum and Brooklyn Childrens Museum in the beginning of the twentieth century are early examples of implication of progressive education in museum settings. Today, museum professionals, especially childrens museum educators, often use terms such as hands-on learning, as the advocacy of their educational programs and exhibitions. However, scholars in education, such as Jackson (1998) and Petrovic (1998) point out that Deweys notion of learning by doing are often misread by educators. People tend to think that Dewey is advocating that curriculum should be abandoned and educators should not give instructions. This misinterpretation is carried forth even in the present time. Thus, concepts of progressive education and learning by doing, should be thoroughly considered in the study.
In Deweys (1900) book, Child and Curriculum, he discussed his rationale of curriculum. He emphasized active learning over passive learning and as a result helped shift pedagogical principal from learning by listening to learning by doing (Jackson, 1998). In addition to the notion of active learning, Dewey (1900) also states that growth of children comes from their continual interaction between ideas and how they represent these ideas through their actions. Observing the progressive education movement in the 1910s and 1920s, Dewey recognized misinterpretations of his notion on pedagogy and warned progressive educators and schools that they had gone overboard to an unconstructive extreme in teaching. In his writings in the 1930s, Dewey stated that many newer schools taught without organized subject-matter and considered guidance by adults were an intrusion of individual freedom. The ideal of the child-centered school had become a failure (Cremin, 1959 Jackson, 1998). In School of Tomorrow, published in 1938, Dewey and his daughter, Evelyn Dewey, explicitly stated that textbooks should not disappear from schools. Educators and well-organized curriculum should be seen as guides to childrens learning however, they were not the only instructors. Through activity, childrens hands, eyes, ears, and their whole body became sources of information (Jackson, 1998).
In childrens interactive exhibitions, the curriculum and the educational aims are often constructed and embedded in a series of interactives that are designed for children. When museums claim that they are using objects in the museum collections or an art theme as the fundamental structure of the interactive gallery, it is important to analyze how the curriculum is organized and how childrens learning activities are guided or encouraged through such a curriculum.
Hands-on Learning
In his writing on the relations between hand, brain, and human culture, Wilson (1998, p. 277) explicitly states that The hand is involved in human learning. After using several examples of the revolution of human hand to explain his point that the hand is indeed the lever to successful and full-filling life, Wilson urges educators to consider the importance of engaging the hand in teaching.
Constructivist museum design elements
Museum education researcher, Hein (1998), embraces Deweys writings on curriculum and education and develops an education theory of constructivist exhibition. He stresses the importance of applying constructivism in museum exhibition design. Constructivist theory argues that both knowledge and the manner in which it is learned are dependent on the minds of learners. According to Hein (1998), constructivist learning situations require two components. First, learners should be encouraged to actively use both their bodies and their minds to experience the world to manipulate, conjecture, experiment, and draw conclusions. Second, learners should be allowed to reach conclusions of their own without having to conform to an outside standard of truth. Therefore, constructivist exhibitions and educational experiences should allow learners to construct their own personal knowledge by incorporating certain design elements.
In the first section of this paper, I provide a list of elements that Hein (1998) suggests museum educators consider when designing a constructivist exhibition. Below are more detailed explanations of these constructivist museum design elements.
Have multiple entry points Studies have shown that when learners are given the opportunity to choose what they would like to learn, it usually leads to better learning outcomes. In a constructivist exhibition, visitors should be given the opportunity to choose their own path in the exhibition and through the individual paths chosen, visitors construct their unique and personal understanding of the content of the exhibition. Provide activities with a range of learning modalities Gardners theory of multiple intelligences encourages museum educators to expand educational activities beyond traditional verbal materials by engaging visitors in using different senses to explore and to access information (Hein, 1998). Layered text, audio guides, CD-Rom computer resources, and tactile activities are common examples. In addition, Hein (1998) points out the possibility of incorporating drama and theater into an outdated permanent exhibition with ancient objects to enable visitors to make more current social connections. In a childrens interactive art exhibition, which might include ancient andor current objects, adding a drama or a theater piece is possible. It may also be interesting to identify how museum educators explore specific elements of theater such as lighting and stage design or acting (dramatic play) in exhibitions created for children. Present multiple points of view It is not only possible but inevitable that people construct their own knowledge and point of view when encountering the same situation, no matter what is done to constrain this from happening (Hein, 1998). Museum exhibitions are often designed by exhibition designers with a specific theme in mind. However, constructivist museums should provide strategies of validating visitors unique conclusions, whether or not they match with the intended theme or view of the curators or exhibition designers (Hein, 1998). Thus, exhibition designers should consider presenting various perspectives, different truths, or multiple ways of interpreting the objects to visitors. Enable visitors to make connections to their life experience The prior knowledge and experience that learners bring with them to an educational situation is a key factor in learning. When the content of an exhibition, including the objects and labels provided, is totally unfamiliar to the visitors, they will not be able to construct cohesive understanding of the exhibition (Hein, 1998). According to Hein (1998), there are two methods that museums professionals should consider to make exhibition content accessible to visitors
1) Connecting the familiar to the unfamiliar the museum juxtaposes contemporary, familiar objects with unfamiliar objects, thus enabling visitors to make conceptual connections. 2) Exhibiting the known the museum can go beyond its collection to include objects and activities that are from the ordinary, the everyday, and at the same time, the museum adds novel, un-familiar elements with the familiar. Provide Intellectual challenge As explained above, educators have to connect visitors to what is familiar to them. However, educators also have to create intellectual challenges that bring visitors beyond the known, so as a result, learning occurs (Hein, 1998). To facilitate childrens learning, museum educators have already considered Vygotskys (1978) theory of zone of proximal development it is the distance between the actual developmental level and the level of potential development which may be facilitated under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers (Edwards, 2005). In addition, Hein (1998) suggests that museum educators create opportunities for visitors to experiment through which a range of results are possible and acceptable.
Designing Interactive Environment for Learning
Learning may be conceptualized as interactions between the individuals personal, socio-cultural, and physical contexts (Falk Dierking, 2001). According to Falk and Dierking, (2001) the personal context that museum visitors bring with them includes the visitors prior knowledge, interests, and beliefs. It also includes each visitors personal choices. The socio-cultural context of a museum learning experience refers to within-group conversations as well as facilitated learning by others in the museum setting. Physical context means the orientation of the space and the design of exhibitions. Visitors learning is influenced by the designwhen exhibitions are appropriately designed, they become one of the best educational mediums and learning tools (Falk Dierking, 2001).
When museums are able to provide visitors immersion experiences, which are well designed exhibitions that envelop visitors in the sounds, smells, sights, textures, and even tastes of the objects or the theme of the exhibition, the experiences become very compelling (Falk Dierking, 2001). Immersion experiences appear in different forms depending on the site, the collection, and the theme of the exhibition. In the designing process, museum professionals should conjure up different ways to contextualize the concepts that the exhibition intends to convey and design meaningful experiences for visitors (Falk Dierking, 2001). Examples of exhibition immersion experiences include having visitors participate in the re-creation of an artists salon in an art museum or watch a jungle animal in a semi-dark setting at a zoo.
The design of interactive activities is not discussed in much detail by scholars of museum education. However, some practitioners who have participated in the designing of interactive exhibitions for children have provided their points of view and experiences. In art museums, much learning depends on visual judgments and verbal interpretation. The opportunity to explore works of art through touch can help visitors understand the work differently. It can even challenge viewers pre-conception of a work of art (Alvarez, 2005). Museums with ancient object collections consider the possibility of translating complex ideas about art and culture into the design of interactive activities through which complex ideas become accessible to young visitors (Sousa, 2005). Exhibitions based on contemporary artworks or themes may also consider using interactive to create conceptual access points for visitors. Some museum professionals characterize interactives as toys or games. Some further state that interactives should designed to be open-ended activities. Their argument is that through the experience of playing, learning occurs most effectively (Moreno Dywan, 2005 Hoppenfeld, 2005). Open-ended interactives designed for and placed next to an artwork may engage visitors in prolonged viewing of the work. But this is unlikely to occur if the parents only are comfortable with physical play but not intellectual play, such as looking at artwork and having a dialogue about it with their children (MacRae, 2005). It is important for museum educators to note, however, that they face the challenge of designing interactives that convey teaching content while at the same time making them open-ended, multi-generational, multi-sensory, and entertaining (Adams Luke, 2005). Most interactive experiences we design for visitors fail because we overburden them, expecting them to do too much (Spock, 2004).
Exhibition Labels
Exhibition labels are among the most prevalent communication instruments in museums and exhibitions since it allows visitors to independently tour displays or exhibits. They consist of item headings and introductory statements, general information, as well as courtesy or additional information (Metz, 2005 Virginia Department of Education, 2006). Organization is usually based by collection and media type which also serve as the basis for the format and structure of content. Their placement is similar to the positioning of captions wherein proximity serves to be the main rule (Sutton, 2007 Koke Dierking, 2007). A variety of materials are utilized in the construction of labels and consideration for the material used is for longevity and readability. According to Serrell (1996) they also have become, to modern curators and historians, a tool in developing insights into the evolution of art and library or museum sciences, public communication and even marketing.
Exhibition labels have traditionally been the main channel of communication with visitors. Exhibit labels do not just provide information on the exhibits and engages the viewers to appreciate their museum experience. Traditional museum levels are generally characterized as briefs for the exhibits they refer to, providing the providence, background and significance of exhibit items. Mackety and Applegate (2003) point out that traditional exhibition labels have generally been static reading materials. Though this not diminishes their academic or even entertainment value, there are clear limitations on the level of interactivity that they can provide viewers. This concern is one of the primary motivations behind the evolution of exhibition labels.
Despite the strides to modernize exhibition labeling and other literature as a tool to liberalize museum experience, other researchers have also pointed out that they can also become actual deterrents to other visitors. One example is the limitation on the language in the use of labels though such labels can be augmented by other media to mitigate linguistic or socio-cultural variances, they are not standards in all institutions. Thus, there is a tendency that labels not be sensitive to cultural diversity, ironic considering that their purpose is to showcase culture and history (Ferguson et al, 2000 Adams et al, 2008). In such cases, it is not hard to imagine that visitors will not be able appreciate the exhibits since of the suggestion of exclusion which deters the ability of visitors to appreciate or relate to the items that they see.
In the study developed by the Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS), they recognized how labels are being relied on by visitors as a learning tool. Thus, the labels are not limited as a communication tool but also have an inherent value in education because of the attribution that they are created by the museum of exhibition institution (Allen, 2004). Their value has been recognized by the government as well The US Congress has included the improvement of media and communication tools as a focus of efforts to reform current state or government-managed museums. The rationale is that labels, as well as other literature, are a means of drawing the interest and patronage of the public, developing contemporary relevance for museums as instructions and help develop sensitivity and responsiveness to factors deterring effectiveness (US Government Printing Office, 2002).
Recent trends have emphasized the incorporation of technology in labeling or providing literature for items on exhibit and interactive engagement of visitors (Semper Spasojevic, 2002 Sparacino, 2002). Efforts to support the former include the automation of audio-visual elements in exhibit areas, extending information resources over the internet and provision of handheld or personal tour devices among others (Livingstone Lemelin, 2001 Proctor Tellis, 2003 Coll et al, 2003 Lin Gregor, 2006). Examples of interactive engagement have generally focused on younger visitors. The development of such tools has been supported not only in museum or exhibit settings but also has been evident in other studies which indicated significant increase in childrens positive response and learning using collaborative learning techniques (Whitty, 2003). Jackson and Leahy (2005) also point that such activities which range from instructions for play to participation in historical re-enactments, also reinforce the authenticity of information, materials and artifacts.
In a parallel research, Dilek (2009) and Costantino (2008) also point out that such activities are critical for classroom or curriculum enforcement among primary students which is indicated to be in turn crucial for creating the relevance and value of museum experience. Bearman and Trant (2002) point that trends in communication and technology are also affecting how families have their museum experience there is evidence to suggest that family visits to museum are the accumulation of an extended period of research through literature or the internet about museums or exhibitions. In general, the utility of technology has been positive and has increased museum competency to respond to visitors. However, this can only be possible if such tools can be intimidating and thus, also require sensitive introduction strategies.
Learning through Play
Learning through play, has become a slogan that is commonly used by museums that offer interactive exhibitions for children. Current literature on how children play in interactive exhibitions is limited. How do children play What children learn from play How shall adults interact with children while they play What kind of environment can support childrens play These are questions that museum educators and exhibition designers need to consider thoroughly in order to create an interactive environment that cohesively manifest the ideal concept, learning through play in interactive exhibitions. The suggestion is that play can better engage students and lessen their fears regarding learning or experiencing new educational settings.
Play can be incorporated into teaching or learning activities in a variety ways using primarily cognitive and behavioral development principles (Landreth et al, 2009). Though play programs can be very flexible, there is a need to ensure that activities outcomes remain measurable and conform to safety and professional standards. Scholars have used different terms and categories to define play, but they can be roughly grouped as below (Avery, 2009)
1) Practical play - focus is on the development of interaction and sensorimotor development
2) Dramatic play - engages the development of relational reasoning and imaginative creativity
3) Constructional play - play facilitated the use of various materials, building play
4) Rule play play focus is on the development of operational and directional reasoning
Psychologists, Dorothy Singer and Jerome Singer (1990) suggests that imaginative play that individuals engage in childhood becomes a precursor to fanciful, and even creative thinking in adult life. When children are engaged in dramatic play, they explore the realm of the possible--they move beyond the concrete experience and think of what they can try for and what could have happened. As childrens thinking continues to expand, they touched upon one of the most fascinating realm of human capacity, they imagine (Singer Singer, 1990). In the case studies developed by Livingstone and Lemelin (2001) in the Canadian Science Centre, they were able to show that engagement in play activities improved retention and learning of participants. Moreover, the participation in the activities also increased return visits and acquisition of further knowledge on the subjects focused on by play activities (Tran, 2007 Walker Manjarrez, 2003). When people, including children, are able to imagine, we are no longer limited by what we perceive in reality. Our imagination enables us to travel through time and space to experience the different and better. Neurologist Kurt Goldstein (in Singer Singer, 1990) states that this human capacity is critical in each healthy individual.
Current reviews of play therapy indicate that they are directly linked with not only with cognitive, behavioral and social development but also therapy (Porter et al, 2009). For Karen Stephens (2009), play has even greater implications her study suggests that childrens potential realization has a strong correlation with play. In particular, there is suggestion that imaginative play can impact critical thinking, reasoning and social skills and competencies not just in childhood but through adulthood. These two studies support the growing advocacy for encouraging the adoption of play techniques and principles in childrens education inside and outside the classroom. Rivera (2009) also recognizes the importance of play but credits its true value on its capacity for social equity, pointing out that it is natural and universal in all cultures. Thus, in the context of museums and similar institutions, the adaptation of play to educate children is recognition that
children need an atmosphere in which exploration and play are valued and encouraged, a print-rich environment in which books--these can be borrowed from a library--encourage verbal skills materials challenge the imagination and there is positive social interaction (p.50)
Play in General School Curriculums
Play has already been seen as a factor in childrens development. However their importance has often reserved as being recreational rather actually developmental As such there has often been a perception that play is not for instructive learning. Another early perception is that desire for play diminishes as children age but more contemporary research have recognized that play evolves with childrens maturity and does not diminish in potential. Other researchers have since prescribed a number of strategies on how play can be utilized in classroom education as a tool of enhancement (Porter et al, 2009). This suggests that the value of play is not the actual play activity but rather in its value of making lessons more accessible to easier to related to by students (Brown Vaughan, 2009 Landreth, et al, 2009).
As children enter middle childhood, the speech and action that children display overly during play gradually and subtly transformed into private thought in the forms of interior monologue, daydreaming, or imagery. Because of growing brain complexity and cognitive capability, children are able to turn their overt make-believe play into images and silent self-talk. Therefore, children take advantages of opportunities, other than formal schooling, to engage in fantasy play. In the study developed by Savva and Trimis (2005), play is perceived as less restrictive and children tend to exercise greater freedom in expressing themselves and develop greater positive associations with the intellectual value associated with their activities. One of the implications is not only that children tend to learn more in the course of play inclusion but also that they can develop a more positive perception about learning in general. This view also has biological evidence. Play activities can induce the release of adrenalin and endorphins creating a happy feeling which then children associated with learning- play activity (Brown Vaughan, 2009).
Recent research has shown that thematic or fantasy play may enhance childrens memory and ability to understand unfamiliar situations. Singer and Singer (1990) state that children may use pretend play to help them to manage school curriculum, to familiarize the novel school setting, and to remember and even to think more clearly. In therapeutic applications of play, there is evidence that play serves to mitigate participation resistance because children feel that they are less likely to be judged or reprimanded (Porter et al, 2009). In wider application, this implies that children utilize play as a tool to improve performance. Rivera (2009) points out that play can even be more critical when there are socio-cultural barriers to performance because they can ease childrens transition to new environments and at the same time increase their long-term social competencies. In a similar manner, Rapp (2005) believes that inquiry-based environments such as the ones that can be developed through play also are critical in inclusion, mitigating social exclusion which is considered as one of the primary reasons for marginalization and victimization among vulnerable population groups.
Case in Point Dramatic Play
Trageton (2005) further suggests that for elementary school children, sensorimotor play can be seen as the root of the other three play forms. Children of this age group and younger explore the world using their body and different senses. Gardner (1983) argues that dramatic play can be complex and intellectually demanding. In my observation, children visiting interactive art exhibitions engage in dramatic play from time to time. Singer and Singer (1990) offer explicit explanation of how children of different ages engage in dramatic play. At this age, children tend to shift from solitary pretend play to social pretend play. The roles and themes of their play become increasing complex. They are able to convert themselves into multiple roles in their theater they are producers, dramatists, and stars, all at the same time. Children overtly talk about their thoughts and express their thoughts in visual actions of the fantasy play. In the course of such exercise, children are able to explore feelings and situations that they are not usually exposed to. This can also be critical in trying children to experience difficult or potentially dangerous scenarios without exposing them to the actual danger such as war or conflict (Dilek, 2009).
As indicated by Singer and Singer, dramatic plays are an example of activities that can help support childrens learning. For very young children, those aged three t six years, play offers children the opportunity to experiment with different roles, practice language skills, and gain control by organizing a games plan or themes. What a child experience at home or in school every day may become part of their pretend play. The pretend play may be altered or modified to suit the childs moods and needs. Similarly, a child may apply what they learn in a play to the everyday to fulfill the cognitive and social demands of life. At the same time, children are encouraged to imagine themselves in the circumstance of other people, specially their classmates, which can enhance their ability to socialize and relate with other children (Hui, 2003 Landreth et al, 2009).
Providing an Environment for Play
Play environments refers to not just space of play but also contextual conditions set or reserved for the play activities. They are supposed to create a favorable setting for participation and collaboration. The construction of play environments involves the development of facilities, programs, methodologies, professional training and evaluation strategies. Though there are numerous evidences supporting the benefits of play in learning environments, the reality is that they cannot just be readily incorporated into curriculums. Play as an activity itself should be differentiated from the integration of play into learning programs. Through the former, or pure play, is also valuable since it provides children purely creative and pleasure activity opportunities, the latter has to subscribe to educational and professional standards (Brown Vaughan, 2009). At the same time, providing opportunities for play does not necessarily mean that learning can be enhanced since the effectiveness of interventions still depends on the responsiveness of participants (Porter et al, 2009).
In the case of non-classroom based environments such as museums, efforts have often been developed in conjunction with schools. Such efforts seek to utilize education professionals experience in communication institutional education objectives. The study developed by Macdonald, Sloan and Miele (2002) collaboration for teacher development to support science museum activities concluded the need to focus on (1) reform policies and standards for science teaching (2) structure museum learning opportunities as formal programs (3) exercise scholarship through evaluation, revision, and dissemination of initiatives (4) recognize individual and mutual mission and vision of partner institutions and (5) maintain clarity beyond institutionalization, emphasizing facilitating access to knowledge and resources (pp. 12-15).
Physical Environment
Physical environment elements are the most tangible factors in developing play programs. The primary consideration in physical facilities development is ensuring the safety of children and, in the case of the involvement of artifacts or exhibits, the protection of the said materials. In the context of play environments, they are the materials where the activities are set against, what the participants interact with or are the object of the play exercise. To be able to maximize childrens participation, it is essential that children feel comfortable and familiar in the environment they are in. The development of such an environment in classrooms is much easier since teachers have greater control over the physical environment whether exclusively or in incorporating play into lessons (Jackson Leahy, 2005). However, typically, classrooms are not constructed to accommodate play activities. Thus, teachers often are challenged to develop play activities outside ordinary classroom settings that can compromise the comfortability and familiarity for children (Costantino, 2008).
In cases where the physical environment are not typically used for classroom education, there is a need to restructure it to support not just only play but also instruction. For the development of learning environments in institutions like museums, teachers or museum administrators have to work closely with the other to ensure that facilities can be developed sufficiently. The former needs to make sure that museums facilities are formatted to best suit the level of competency or skills of students. The latter needs to accommodate the special needs of young children which may entail special consideration since museums are in general designed for more mature visitors or are limited in the socio-cultural responsiveness (Falk Powers, 2008). In cases where play settings involve controversial themes or the use of materials that post some amount of risk, it is also becomes critical to mitigate risks and instituting emergency response systems (Kuehner, 2007). For Adams and associates (2008) this also includes the accommodation of social and cultural concerns which may require special facilities. These may come in the come in the for disability access, accommodation for special learning needs or making available language and communication options.
Adult Involvement and Interaction
When adults play with children, it is critical that adults respond to children appropriately so that they feel a sense of psychological safety to play and explore freely and comfortably. Research data suggest that children are able to develop their creative potential more fully if they are raised by parents who support and encourage their play (Stephens, 2009). OConnell and Bretherton (in Singer Singer, 1990) observed closely how mothers play with their children. They state that when most mothers play with their children, they do not tune in to their childrens cognitive development or adjust to their childrens knowledge base. In addition, they suggest that children tend to take their mothers suggestions when the content suggested coincide with what the child is currently trying to master. This serve to highlight how much adults, particularly primary caregivers, can impact childrens experience.
According to Loveland (2003), collaborative education programs benefit directly from parental involvement because they extend and reinforce learning outside of the classroom. Moreover, adult involvement also provided children with authority figures to discuss their concerns or questions in real time. Another advantage of having adults involved in the activities is that the values of activities are validated that can enhance childrens participation and confidence. From the study developed by the US Department of Education (2008), they point out that adult involvement and interaction also provides significant potential for research. They show that though children are the focus of interventions, they provide limited feedback for research. More mature participants can develop deeper insights into the progress of research which in turn is essential in improving programs or interventions.
Though there are research that also encourage childrens independent play, in the case of situation where there is the need to introduce new concepts or deal with new situations, the participation of adults can ease efforts significantly. Children directly recognize the involvement of adults indicating adults are highly noteworthy for them. However, both Warger (2003) and Whitty (2003) point out the need to closely manage adult involvement. They suggest that such involvement require orientation, if not training, to ensure that adult participants are sensitive and responsive to childrens learning issues and program objectives. They both point out that because adults, regardless if they are parents or not, are viewed as authority figures, they directly affect childrens response to programs implemented. However, the research also has shown that with positive involvement, children exhibit enhanced response to programs as well as improve their ability to communicate effectively to a wider audience.
Museum for Family Visitors
Families are considered as the cornerstone of society. Current research has made museums realize that the traditional strategies of exhibiting artworks in art museums and museums cannot achieve the goal of educating children and family visitors. The recognition of the later came from studies of visitor attendance over the course of six years by the IMLS in 2004, 2006 and 2008 the study has shown that there has been a growth of family-based attendance in museums either as fulfillment of school requirements, in support of local historical and social development initiatives or personal reasons. Some of the consequence of the trend is the challenge to respond to socio-cultural diversity and a wider demographic. Family visitors come to museums not only to learn but also to enjoy the time that they spend together. Therefore, museums need to understand social and cultural factors affecting familial relationships.
Social Value
In Lemelin (2002) and in Savva and Trimis (2005) show family museum visitors are in general not random but can be considered deliberate and often involve significant research before actual visits. At the same time, parents often extend research into museums and various exhibits after visits to reinforce the experience with their children. Either case presents unique opportunities for learning and collaboration. Though these scenarios can be considered ideal, nonetheless, they create the need for literature or materials that families can use to reinforce learning or the museum experience itself (Livingstone Lemelin, 2001 Lin Gregor, 2006). Another opportunity that family attendance can enhance is in mitigating social and cultural deterrent of museum attendance. Boiano and associates (2003) see that developing such support can enhance effective communication. Nakamura and associates (2002) in turn believes that it can also increase cultural and social understanding, with families serving as a foundation and a source of support. Both perspective support inclusion initiatives which has been seen as key to increasing social involvement and participation which in turn has attributed to productivity (Ferguson et al, 2000).
At the same time, though education is focused on younger members of the family, this does not diminish the importance of other family members. Due to the intimacy of familial relationships, the exclusion, perceived or otherwise, of one member can also limit the level of participation and satisfaction from museum visits. Because they take on the role of adult-educators involved in interventions, they can critically impact childrens positive museum experience and reinforcing the accomplishment of goals of the museum visit. The importance of family involvement in museum attendance has been part of social and development reinforcement. Thus, the success of family museum attendance can become a platform for more effective school and home education partnerships or even social development initiatives for the public.
Family Learning
According to the Hein (1998), though learning remains to be an individual process there is no denying the influence of external influences in the process. In the case of families, their impact is even greater because of the degree of the closeness of relationships. At the same time, he recognizes that they also can enhance museums in general because of their social value. He quotes Borun et al (1996) Families have a culture of shared knowledge, values, and experiences. A family group that visits a museum can enrich its culture, storing knowledge for later sharing among family members (p. 147). Other authors credit the importance of family in museum learning to its significance in the construction of personal context (Xanthoudaki et al, 2003).The implication is that family learning is supported and enhanced by visiting the museum together and can increase the effectiveness of museum education efforts. Hein (1998) considers this another illustration of how museum experiences create a platform of interaction of visitors backgrounds and visitors reaction to objects on display.
Falk and Dierking (2002) documented a number of investigations regarding the interaction of families in several museums. They share that Deborah Bentons observation of family visitors of New York museums indicate that family leadership affected the length of museum visits and suggested a direct relationship between parents leadership in museum visits to discipline management of children. They also relate the observation of Samuel Taylor of family visitors to the Steinhar Aquarium which showed that visits positively contributed to family communication and understanding. The behavior that has been most observed was that families exhibited freedom in conversation and interaction as they go about the exhibits. The behaviors were also observed by Karen Hasel at the New York Aquarium and by Linda Snow-Dockser in particular between mothers and their children in childrens museums. Observed participants of the studies all expressed that they felt that they could better interact with their family members by utilizing the museum into interactions and at the same time, they were better able to accommodate the information that they were learning because of the learning and social reinforcement they are able to receive through their family group. Thus, the family interactions are shown to be highly socially-interactive but also shows that they can be empirically studiedstudied using observed behaviors of family visitors as well as through personal evaluation of family participants.
The importance of family attendance in museums to support learning and education is reflected in government policies. Hooper-Greenhill (2007) believes that more policies will be developed to support museums role in social inclusion. The rationale behind the efforts is that by collectively empowering family groups to address in a positive manner their issues regarding poverty, relationship issues, poor health or social representation, the socially limitations they communal suffer are addressed more effectively. In such an approach, familial history can be given relevance or reinforcement by creating references or parallelisms with providence or significance of museum exhibits. Hein (1998) however point out that museums also have to afford the option for families to independently pursue their own explorations and learning. Heins basis for the suggestion is based on multiple intelligence theories and how individual pursuit and fulfillment of them can in turn enhance socialization and development of others such as parents with their children (Gardner, 1993). Therefore, the challenge for museums is to be able to encourage families to experience the museum as a family unit, relating it to their collective context, but also allows them opportunities for individual enrichment.
Existing Approaches
Interactive art exhibitions represent a relatively new approach in the field of art education. Thus, in order to develop a more cohesive understanding of past and current approaches in actual art museum and childrens museum settings, I visited interactive exhibitions in the United States, in Taiwan, in France, and in Australia. In my previous research projects, I gathered data and analyzed the exhibition content and educational strategies of these exhibitions. Based on my previous research, interactive art exhibitions may be generally divided into three categories 1) exhibitions designed to help visitors explore elements in art without focusing on a specific collection of objects. The Childrens Art Carnival designed by Victor DAmico around 1950s is one of the examples 2) exhibitions that were curated and designed for a collection of objects from different periods of time and of different origins. The Gallery of Interpretation at the Art Institute of Chicago and The Childrens Gallery in the Centre Pompidou had curated exhibitions of this kind 3) exhibitions that focused on contemporary art collections and contemporary artists. The Childrens Museum of Manhattan and The Queensland Art Gallery both had curated exhibitions that may be placed under this category.
Exhibitions for Fostering Artistic Exploration and Sensitivity
During the 1930s and 1940s, a number of educators in the U.S. began to explore possibilities of implementing the theories of John Dewey and the concepts of Progressive Education in their own classroom (Morgan, 1995). Some art educators joined the effort and DAmico was among them. Observing the art teaching approaches during his time, DAmico saw two extremes encouraging imitation and rule-following on one end, and a laissez-faire methodproviding children with materials and leaving them completely aloneon the other (Morgan 1995). Instead of following the teaching approaches that were prevalent, DAmico used MoMA as a laboratory for experimenting with new ideas and methods of art teaching. DAmico stated that the art classes for children offered at MoMA were designed to develop sensitivity, creative power, and confidence in children. In his book, The Creative Teaching in Art, he argued that a child must be permitted to work as an artist. With the appropriate school environment, children can be supported to reach their fullest creative potential in the ways that artists approach their media and materials. In addition to encouraging children to explore art media in the ways artists do, DAmico also suggested that there was a natural progression from making art to contemplating and understanding the art created by artists (Morgan, 1995).
From 19421969, the Museum of Modern Art in New York had Childrens Art Carnival (Gollin, 1995). DAmico (1960) explicitly stated that the Carnival was designed to show adults how to stimulate childrens sensory experiences and creative abilities (Churchill, 2007 Gollin, 1995). At the entrance to the Carnival, visitors would see the Contour Gate, a white metal rod shaped in the size of two children, a four-year-old and a twelve-year-old. This gate indicated the Childrens Art Carnival was a space opened exclusively to young children. The space of the Carnival was divided into two sections an inspirational area where children could play with specially-designed motivational toys and games and a studio area where children could make paintings, collages, and construction (DAmico, 1960). Below are descriptions of two of the toys placed in the motivation area.
Color Players. The concept of this toy involves painting with light, one player shows cool colors, a second shows warm. On two tree-like structures in a large box, a child hangs abstract shapes and animal forms. With a lower window in front of the box, a child can change colors shining on trees by pushing four different keys. A child can add movement by revolving trees with foot pedals.
Three-Dimensional String Design. The child attaches six pieces of elastic string, fixed at one end in a large shadow box, to a choice of hooks in walls and ceiling of the box. He then hangs three-dimensional decorations on the strings.
Motivational Area, Three Dimensional String Design Toy on the right
Motivational Area
Most of the interactive toys were presented to children in a station. Standing or seating at the station, the child manipulated the toy that was designed for the purpose of motivating and engaging them. DAmico stated that his intention of incorporating these toys in the Childrens Carnival was that children could enter the studio area to make art after being inspired, motivated, and perhaps relived some of the clichs and stereotypes they once held (DAmico, 1960)
Exhibition Design Incorporating Ancient Objects with Current Elements
The Hammerman Gallery is the centerpiece of the Kraft Education Center. The mission of designing exhibitions in this gallery is to use original work of art from the Museum collections with interpretation and accessibility for a young audience (Sousa, 2005). Since opening, three interactive exhibitions have been on view Art Inside Out Exploring Art and Culture through Time Telling Images Stories in Art and Faces, Places, Inner Spaces. Each exhibition is on view for approximate three years. All of them use original artworks from various curatorial departments and each was organized around a central theme. The conceptual emphasis of these exhibitions is the connection and interface between the visual arts and the cultures within which these works were generated (Sousa, 2005). Paragraphs below describe AICs various strategies and concerns regarding how to interweave artworks, interpretive exhibition, and interactives to conceptualize and realize each exhibition.
J. Sousa (2005), the director of interpretive exhibitions and family programs at AIC stated that one of the most challenging issues is how to translate complex ideas about art and culture into interactive components that are accessible to young visitors. In the Art Inside Out, the interpretive exhibition is designed and built without placing the original works of art in the interpretive exhibition gallery. A design team worked with the curator of Chinese Art and used photographs of an actual tomb as a reference, for example, as it created a simulation of an imperial tomb from the tang Dynasty for an interpretive environment. This simulated tomb was designed to give visitors an accurate context for the collection of tomb figures in the Chinese galleries at the Art Institute.
Through the interpretive exhibitions, the family gallery intends to create an access point for each object using a contemporary reference that would help children understand the essential meaning that the object had at the time it was made. For example, Grave Guardian Beast from the Tang Dynasty (c. 700) was made to protect a deceased emperor in the afterlife. Considering the access point, the designers of the exhibition suggested a guard dog leaping out of a doghouse when a pedal was pushed to convey the idea of guardianship and protection. Sousa (2005) explained that the design team realized at this point that certain ancient objects would not find easy contemporary parallels. The design team needs to consider exhibition design strategies carefully to avoid misinterpretation and misunderstanding.
The interpretive elements and the interactives are conceptualized primarily by education staff and manufactured by design workshop. The AIC Hammerman Gallery designs a simulated environment to provide context for a specific ancient object. Through the interpretive exhibition, the Gallery intends to use the interpretation of its design team to help visitors build a more solid understanding of the context and content of the objects.
