American Literature

    Eurocentrism is a practice in the world where people belief in European culture, values and perspectives. This practice was common in late 20th century during decolonization period. People who believe in Eurocentrism copy European culture, dress code, lifestyle and other practices. Basically, it is taking Europe as the driving force all over the world and that for human beings to progress they should be westernized. Eurocentrism makes individual to perceive things as per European history, culture, religion and language.

Individuals judge others through cultural practices, religious beliefs, ethnic background, language identity and national background. Accordingly, other cultures are considered as inferior to European way of life and this has made many individuals to abandon their own ethnic background to western culture. However, this is a mental perception by non-Europeans as they believe that their way of life is less civilized, modern, equal and relevant. The main claims of Eurocentric world view are that an individuals or personal way of life is different from others. This means that changes in individuals is usually arbitrary and occur to meet immediate objectives (OUS, 2003). The highest value of life usually lies in acquisition of the object and this claim of Eurocentrism is reflected when individuals have a sole objective of getting westernized.

Individuals have the role to control and dominate nature because there is separateness between humans and nature. Eurocentrism beliefs in the principle of survival for the fittest and this claim are centered o the aspect of maximum utilization of resources within the surrounding of man. Competition, dichotomy, individual rights and independence are the other basic values that a man is supposed to strive so as to achieve.  

Afrocentrism
Afrocentrism is a term that emphasizes on the importance of African people that are usually taken as black people in history, culture, race and philosophy. The origin of Afrocentrism can be traced from repression of Black people through the Western world since 19th century. At the time of colonial period, Europeans who had travelled to Africa met individuals with elementary technology.
The Africans embraced self appraisal, technology, culture and industrialization.
The Europeans considered themselves as superior to cultural practices and people they encountered in Africa.  Afrocentrists contended that Eurocentrism contributed to neglect and denial of African people especially their contributions. The modern Afrocentricity originates from the work of African Diaspora intellectuals. Social changes in United States and Africa in the early 20th century that led to end of slavery and colonization was the beginning of Afrocentrism. The Africans wanted to establish their own identities and distinguish their achievements from the influence of European people (Wells, 2004).

African Americans established their own church congregations, formed their own communities, were very much concerned about the importance of education and took active public roles. This was excellently achieved despite the presence of segregation and discrimination. Africentrism can be associated with political movement of the Black historians, intellectuals and politicians in the context of US civil rights movement.

Afrocentrism is centered around certain claims and beliefs such as the value of human life lies in interpersonal relationships between men, an individual is supposed to live in harmony with nature, human beings should utilize materials within their surrounding in an appropriate way, a man should strive to achieve key values in life such as cooperation, interdependence and collective responsibility.

    The ability to shun discrimination, promote cultural diversity and embrace democracy among the different races in a community is critical in facilitating greater commitment, justice, innovation and faster development.  Though addressing racism takes a lot of time, its application brings together all races to develop common developmental objectives.  However, it demands great commitment especially from the dominant groups a consideration that Glenn (2008) indicates is very hard to achieve.  

My viewpoint concurs with Kaun (2008) and Andersen and Taylor (2007) conclusions which indicate that at all levels of the community, African Americans remain vulnerable but rarely evident in public due to the existing legislations.  To what level does race affect my life, access to resources, democracy and representation of African Americans in my community  It is from this consideration that this paper intrinsically evaluates my race as a black American in relation to the community I live in.    

Do members of your community look like you In what ways do they look the same or different
From the physical appearance point of view, my community is different from me in several ways.  To begin with, my skin pigmentation is darker a consideration that is often used to directly tell between African Americans and white Americans.  Though at the younger age the notion of skin color was not emphatic amongst us as kids and students, it latter came out more strongly at the older age.  I my first year at the University, I was once denied a chance to work in a local supermarket through I had the same qualifications with other white Americans.   Secondly, I also look different in that I tend to keep my hair shorter compared to the whites.  In his study, Diana (1997) found out that African American hairs are often hard to maintain and therefore requires constant care compared to that of white Americans.  As a result many of the African Americans keep their hair short which is easier to manage compared to the whites who prefer longer styles. 

On the other hand, the body size tends to be similar especially for the men as they are engaged in the same types of activities.  From a distance, it might be hard to tell between my friends and me.  Though genetic factors contribute to the overall size of the body, Andersen and Taylor (2007) argue that it is the environment that has the overriding force.

How do leaders of your community treat people who are like you How do they treat people who are different

Over the years, much have changed due to massive legislations that dictate the expected relationship at all levels.  For instance, legislations such as Civil Rights Aft of 1991, Executive Order 131166 and No Fear Act seek to create the same operating platform for all (Terrell and Lindsey, 2008).  However, African Americans are still treated differently but not publicly by the leaders.  To begin with, there is preference by the community leaders that small groups and other teams be led by a white as opposed by a person of African-American origin.  From this consideration, it appears in order when any initiative is led by a white as opposed to an African-American. 

Though indirectly, preference of whites in accessing resources is further evident from the leaders.  While the role of leaders is to facilitate impartiality, they encourage by guaranteeing our white counterparts easier access to education and healthcare among other resources at the community level.  At this point, African Americans have to become more assertive to receive equal treatment and access to resources (Andersen and Taylor, 2007).  However, it is evident that the reception is indeed very cold especially when African Americans threaten to take legal actions. 

    African-Americans mistakes are usually taken with a lot of emphasis compared to those of the whites.  For juvenile and other simple cases involving African-Americans, I agree with Umphress et al (2008) who indicated that leaders prefer that the cases are addressed from the highest possible punitive consideration.   However, issues that are even greater in magnitude relating to whites are often locally settled.  Analysts have concurred on this impartial aspect being a major factor in contributing to high numbers of incarcerated African Americans in the correction centers.    
How do members of your community treat people who are like you How do they treat people who are different

Brendesha, Neville and Utsey (2008) explain that with white Americans forming the majority in the United States, the ability of the African Americans to curve an equal niche will take long to achieve.  The community is indeed very polarized as members tend to associate more with their white colleagues as opposed to the blacks.  Developmental groups, except those that call for all members participation, are highly divided as whites largely associate with other whites. 

Notably, the whites consider themselves superior at the community level.  This viewpoint is further reinforced by the fact that they occupy higher social economic status in the society.  As a result, they look down African Americans and at times ridicule them directly.  As a result abusive language and brutal attacks have not been uncommon.  Though coming to law of different equality legislations have led to reduction in direct discrimination I agree with Brendesha et al (2008) argument that the problem is not fully eliminated.

Other groups such as Europeans origin are not segregated as those of African-American origin.  However, they are not incorporated in community development circles.  Besides, they are considered to be at a higher social economic status compared to the African-Americans.  However, Latinos and people of Asians origin receive similar negative treatment to that of African Americans.
Do your text or work manuals contain information by or about people like you
Notably, the American society has been described as one of the most diverse and therefore attracting vast researchers.  As a result, my text contains texts about people of African-American descent.  Indeed, though people from African-American Diaspora have been lowly regarded, their contribution to scholarly work has been immense.  Great African American authors such as Walter Mosley, Maya Angelou and Toni Morrison have contributed to my texts with great revelations on social-cultural and political setting of the United States (Bertha, 2009).  In his literary work, James Emmanuel brought out the inspiring collection of African-American literature such as the dark symphony Negro literature in America (Kalte, 2005).  My work manuals also include information by the following recognized African-Americans Richard Wright, Langston Hughes and Gwendolyn Brooks.  It is no doubt that African Americans continue contributing immensely to the scholarly world.     

Do the local media represent people like you If so in what ways
Though people of African-American descent have been represented in the media, there is needed greater space to create the correct impression of their culture, professionalism and holistic capacity in contributing to economic growth and prosperity.  In 1950s, African Americans were almost non-existent in the local media however, the trend had greatly changed by with recent times.  Between years 2003 and 2004, Catherine (2009) reports that African Americans made up about 16 of characters in the prime-time.  Catherine (2008) continues to say that during the same period, there was an equal representation for white Americans, Latinos and African Americans of the characters playing major roles in most storylines. 

In the television, various channels have increasingly found that harmonizing representation creates a wider market and promotes societal cohesion.  Disney channel has in the recent past included programs that incorporate greater integration of African-American descent in programs such as Everybody hates Chris, Thats so raven and Cory in the house (Romer and Jamieson, 2008). Other African American presenters such as Oprah Winfrey and Jemima have outdone their white counterparts and largely influenced the number of TV African Americans in the last three decades (Catherine, 2009).

In the music video, African-American culture is greatly misrepresented with their involvement in the pop music being associated with violence, drugs, alcohol and violence (Brendesha et al, 2008).  The local media stereotypically links African Americans men to be sex-driven while women of the same descent are portrayed as sex objects. 

In the movies on the other hand, the representation has been effective.  Indeed, movies have not only captured the need to shun racism, but emphatically indicated the blacks ability in the entertainment industry.  Movie characters such as Will Smith, Jimmie Fox, Gridiron Gang and Martin Lawrence have sent clear messages on the abilities of the blacks.   

What are some similarities and differences between you and the people who are in leadership positions in your community Do you think minority group interests are represented within your community

Notably, leaders and I appear to share so much in common but we equally have great differences.  To begin with I concur with the local leadership that development is critical and should cut across all communities.  By incorporating all communities the force to address the problems goes up while the overall resistance from the people decreases.  Besides, I agree with our leaders that community must be able to coexist and reduce their overall differences if its development is to be harmonic with other national and global communities.  The emphasis on continued learning and improvement from other communities is particularly noble and I fully agree with it.  With recent derivation from President Obamas famous saying that yes we can, continued improvement creates a room for greater visionary focus towards the future (Bertha, 2009).

However, I differ with the leaders on their views regarding dominant cultures.  Though they rarely express it openly, most of them would prefer to have a homogeneous society for easier administration.  However, I consider diversity to be very crucial in providing divergent views on community issues and therefore more comprehensive solutions to them.  I further differ with my leaders on the viewpoint that African Americans are more crime oriented compared to the whites.   Some contributions to this viewpoint include stereotypes and selective administration of justice which make it therefore incorrect.  Though both blacks and whites broke into houses to get food and water after hurricane Katrina, blacks were referred to as hoodlums while whites were indicated to have done everything for survival (Kaun, 2008).  

In my community, minority groups interests representations are satisfactory.  Though there is needed great improvement, most African Americans have effective access to healthcare facilities and education which are very critical in creating a healthy community.  Besides, their economic status is satisfactory mainly due to accessibility of employment opportunities with reduced levels of discrimination at the workplaces.  Besides, we have major African American scholars and teachers in different schools while accessibility of education has improved drastically since the passing of No Child Left Behind legislation in the year 2001.        

If you could resolve any inequities within your community, what would you change How and why
If I were to resolve the problem of inequality in my community, I would change the leadership style and its administration.  To begin with, I would advocate for cultural diversity where all the members feel represented and therefore part of the extended community.  Diversity would promote pride for all and therefore increase openness and commitment towards greater development.  Then, I would advocate and establish a democratic model of choosing the leaders who are highly qualified and have effective vision for the community.  Democracy would create greater cohesion, acceptability of different decisions and faster development (Terrell and Lindsey, 2008).  Besides, I would encourage the community to from other societies that are fast developing.  This would generate new ideas on how to address emergent problems and improving our own progresses.  Finally, I would seek justice at all levels as a platform for reducing societal problems and creating better focus on more productive activities in the society by all.  

    From the above discussion, this paper conclude by supporting the thesis statement, the ability to shun discrimination, promote cultural diversity and embrace democracy among the different races in a community is critical in facilitating greater commitment, justice, innovation and faster development.  African Americans in my community came out as highly committed and development oriented, but they are often misrepresented.  However, due to the current legislations on discrimination, overall discrimination and especially on the open has greatly reduced.  However, there is needed great change at al levels of the community to promote cultural diversity, respect integrity for all and cooperation for faster development.

Literary realism refers to the representation or depiction in literature of the society and day-to-day happenings and experiences as they are in reality (without idealism and subjective prejudice, which are the hall-marks of romanticism). The literary realism movement rose in the 19th century, particularly following the American Civil War. In the years after the Civil War, the literary world was divided into three camps the romantics, the realists and the naturalists who came later.

The romantics, chief among them Ralph Waldo Emerson, presented in their works characters who had the unlimited ability to confront the worst of adversity and come out unscathed. Romanticists found and depicted ideal characters and situations which would be difficult to find in the real world, and impossible to verify using existing scientific laws. According to Romanticists, human abilities acquired at birth were more important than abilities acquired through education and training (Penrose).

Realists on the other hand center their attention to a remarkable degree on the immediate, the here and now, the specific action, and the verifiable consequence (Campbell). Realists therefore portrayed characters and situations as they were in real life and could therefore be verified within the existing scientific laws or recorded history. The 19th century was the same period that Industrial Revolution swept through the United States, bringing with it rapid industrialization and urbanization rates. Demand for literary work was in high demand as more and more Americans sought to understand the rapid social and cultural changes which accompanied the revolution. In their presentation of the Industrial Revolution-era population, realists sought to explore American social life and depict it in their works without relying on ideals.

A prominent characteristic of realism is that the characters are far more important than the plot and the action. In most instances, the characters are depicted being faced with dilemmas, and making difficult ethical choices. Realists set their works in real American regions and settings, capturing and depicting the everyday struggles and experiences of the people living in the depicted settings. They limited their use of symbolism to the bare minimum and aspired to create images in the minds of the readers (Penrose). The realists believed that it was easier for a reader to identify with a character or situation if such a reader could visualize the character, than when all the reader could do was imagine an idealand perfect character.

William Dean Howells (1837-1920) was among the earliest supporters of literary realism and his works revolved around everyday American life and his readers could easily identify with the characters and situations depicted in the writings (William Dean Howells Society). Howells defined realism simply as the truthful treatment of material and therefore depicted social life and everyday struggles as Americans experienced it everyday (Carter 36). His novel, The Rise of Silas Lapham, became one of his most popular novels. Other writers who joined the literary realism movement included Mark Twain and Henry James, Hamlin Garland and Stephen Crane.

Raymond Carver climbed through the ropes of the American literary boxing ring with his first collection of short stories, Will You Please Be Quiet, Please (1976). By the time of his early death from lung cancer in 1988, he had quite a few knockouts under his belt.

Carvers father was a laborer and saw-sharpener, and his mother was a homemaker. His parents names were already literary material Clevie Raymond Carver and Ella Beatrice Casey. The author was born on May 25, 1938 in the logging town of Clatskanie, Oregon, so the mythical material for a working-class writer was already there for the taking.

At heart, Ray Carver was a poet. His first two books were collections of poetry Near Klamath (1968) and Winter Insomnia (1970). The American literary marketplace, however, is not kind to poets, and if Carver had gone on writing only poetry he would not have achieved any measurable status. As a short-story writer, Carver is very much akin to Sherwood Anderson. Like his Anderson, Carvers characters are lower-middle class or lower class people who are marginal or isolated from the community. And the affect of a Carver story, just as with an Anderson tale, can be strange and unsettling. Most of Carvers stories are set in the Pacific Northwest, where he was born and raised by working-class parents. His father, Clevie Raymond Carver, a sawmill worker, taught the boy to fish and hunt, and entertained him by reading from Zane Grey novels. Shortly after graduating high school, Carver married 16-year-old Maryann Burk, who was pregnant with the first of their two children. The couple struggled for many years, working odd jobs, and in the daytime Carver attended college he became serious about writing after taking a course taught by the late novelist John Gardner at Chico State College in California. A poet and recognized master of the short story, Carver published 10 books in a career shadowed by alcoholism, poverty, despair and a fractured marriage. His stories chronicled the lives of Americas working poor, and were effective---some critics contend---because that was a life Carver himself had known

Carver transferred to Californias Humboldt State College and continued to write, publishing his first poems and short stories while still a student there. He received his degree in 1963, packed up his family, and moved to Iowa to attend the prestigious Iowa Writers Workshop, but the money ran out after a year and the Carvers returned to California, where Raymond took a job as a hospital janitor.
In 1983, he quit teaching upon winning the Mildred and Harold Strauss Living Award, which provided a tax-free stipend of 35,000 a year for five years. That same year he published a fifth story collection, Cathedral, to almost universal acclaim. In 1988, dying of cancer, Carver collected what he considered the best of his stories, plus seven new ones, in the collection Where Im Calling From. Shortly after that books publication he was inducted into the American Academy and Institute of Arts and Letters.


II Critic A

Robert Evans, an American writer examines and discusses the value of friendship in Hamlet. He also points out the role of friendship in the tragedy of Hamlet.

According to Evans, the of friendship is prevalent in Shakespeares works, from his comedies and romances to his histories and tragedies, and is personified in such pairs as Hamlet and Horatio of Hamlet, Rosalind and Celia in As You Like It, and Hal and Falstaff in the Henry IV plays. Evans writes that much scholarly interest in the theme of Shakespearean friendship has been devoted to the dramatists treatment of the friendship-versus-love topos.  According to Evans, a relatively common scheme in Renaissance literature, this pattern pits steadfast friends (usually males) against the threat of heterosexual union in marriage.

Evans states that as commentators have observed, marriage tends to win out in the end, but Shakespeare remains characteristically ambivalent as to whether love or friendship truly triumphs. And he added that this love-versus-friendship theme describes the central plot of one of Shakespeares early comedies, He also mentioned that the Two Gentlemen of Verona, as well as his late collaborative romance. He also added that Shakespeares detailed portrayals of false friendships have attracted the attention of scholars, most notably the fascinating relationship between Prince Hal and Falstaff and the dramatists iconographic representation of false friendship in his late tragedy Timon of Athens.

Evans discusses that critics generally agree that Shakespeares most compelling and sustained depiction of friendship appears in the drama Hamlet. That having returned from Wittenberg to find his father dead and mother remarried to his uncle Claudius, Hamlet relies on the devoted friendship of Horatio and survives the poor advice of his dubious university companions Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. Evans also provided the idea that critics have frequently contrasted the true and false friendships portrayed in the drama, and have endeavored to come to some final conclusion regarding Shakespeares musings on the subject of friendship in this tragic context.

Evan maintains that friendship constitutes a fundamental theme in the tragedy of Hamlet, one that is first articulated in the dramas opening scene and is sustained throughout. Evans also studies the relationships between Hamlet and Horatio, Rosencrantz, Guildenstern, Laertes, Claudius, and Ophelia, as well as his friendships with other minor characters in the play. According to him, Horatio shows himself to be a true friend, while Claudiuss actions demonstrate that he is an isolated and self-serving figure, as are Rosencrantz and Guildenstern. He concludes by remarking on the tragic near-friendship of Hamlet and Laertes, observing that they wrongly battle one another not because they are enemies, but to prove whose love for Ophelia is greater.

Charlene Spretnak champions the cause of early Greek goddesses. Spretnak argues that prior to the establishment of the patriarchal Olympic mythological tradition, which developed after early Greece was invaded by the lonians, the Achaeans, and later by the Dorians, who took up residence from about 2500 to 1000 B.C., there existed an oral tradition firmly rooted in Goddess worship.

Spretnak notes that the goddesses were incorporated into the Olympian myths, they were transformed into jealous, disagreeable, sexual objects. Spretnaks Lost Goddesses of Early Greece retells of several very famous stories from Greco-Roman mythology the myths of Gaia, Pandora, Themis, Aphrodite, the triad of the Moon (Artemis, Selene, and Hecate), Hera, Athena, and Demeter and her daughter Persephone. Spretnak also presents the research that allowed her to draw these conclusions and create her reinterpretations of the ancient stories.zSpretnaks analysis of the Greek myths is based partly on the idea that many of the first deities worshipped by humans were female Goddesses (more on this hypothesis later). She claims that the Greek pantheon we know today is the merging of the mythology of several cultures that of the original matrifocal inhabitants of Greece, and that of the invading Ionians, Achaeans, and Dorians, who brought with them male gods, patriarchal religion and culture. Spretnak is the first writer to recreate the actual stories of the pre-Hellenic goddesses from history and classical writing. She takes full responsibility for her interpretations of the myths, and acknowledges that there is no way to truly reconstruct an ancient, unrecorded oral tradition.     The telling of myth is a ritual creation of sacred space. Reading a myth to oneself or hearing it spoken in a ritual setting draws ones consciousness into a field of relationship that places all participants --- the engaged witness, the narrator, the principals of the sacred story --- in deep accord with the life processes of the unfolding universe. Myth is sacred narrative evoked by a totemic presence, a manifestation or empowered bearer of cosmic energies. The more a narrative evolves in elaborations distant from the totemic presence, the more it loses vitality and may fade in time to formulaic allegory. The sacred stories of the Goddess are replete with such totemic animals --- bears, owls, serpents, deer, and spiders --- but clearly the remarkable allure of Goddess myths in disparate eras and cultures results from the fact that the body of the Goddess is itself a totemic presence.

This passage leads nicely into an idea alluded to earlier the idea that all religion was originally Goddess-centered, which is often tied to theories that human culture was originally matriarchal. While the abundance of female figurines found in paleolithic and neolithic archaeology suggests that Goddess-worship may have played an important role in many cultures, The ancient matriarchies hypothesis is even more controversial, although it was very popular in historical, paleontological, and anthropological academic work for a time.

S. T. Coleridges masterpiece, the Rime of the Ancient Mariner, is an allegory of sin and expiation, guilt and redemption or regeneration, loneliness and suffering. It tells us how a human being suffered both physically and spiritually for killing a bird unjustly. Here the killing of the bird does not demand murder of the Mariner, the punishment here is of a different kind. The sinner, in this poem, has to undergo a long terrible suffering which is actually a process of expiation of the purification of his soul. It is a story within a story. The underlying story always has a moral significance. In worldly it might have a moral end in view but out worldly it ought to satisfy the literary urge in the reader. Only beautiful blending of the two purposes shall make a work of literature really great.

A brief discussion of the poem 
The poem consists of seven stanzas. The very first one indicates the commitment of the crime shooting of the Albatross.  From the second to the fifth stanza, there is a description of Mariners terrible suffering. Finally the rest two stanzas gradually announce his possible spiritual salvation. Thus the whole poem can be structured in this way-
1) Stanza 1- Commitment of the crime.
2) Stanza 2-5 Damnation, which leads towards redemption.
3) Stanza 6-7 Purgation or purification.

In the last two lines of the first stanza, when readers all on a sudden, come to be informed of that, .........with my cross bow  I shot the Albatross. Readers are surprised, and do not immediately realize the Mariners motives behind killing the innocent bird. Perhaps he has killed it in a moment of annoyance or anger, or out of mere frivolity. He might have done it out of his jealousy as well. However, Coleridge seems to take the nature of the crime seriously and bring the criminal under heavier punishment. Why he has to undergo so much punishment for killing a simple bird A careful reader can suggest the following possible interpretations.
Firstly, It is not just the killing of an ordinary bird Coleridge makes the bird a symbol of a human being of even better a super human being as is noticed in the lines As if it had been a Christian Soul  We hailed in Gods name

Secondly, his uncertainty of motives behind killing the bird, in fact, symbolizes the essential frivolity of many crimes done against humanity and the ordered system of the world. It shows the perversity of will and lack of understanding of the worth of God creation.

Thirdly, the bird was accepted as a welcome guest and for nine days it shared their food and play. So the killing of the bird certainly is not sometimes trivial. It is the violation of the sanctified relation between the host and the guest.

Finally, by killing the bird he has broken the bond between himself and nature. Reader can also take it as the violation of the bond between himself and God of consequence of which he becomes spiritually dead.

In the second stanza of the poem, readers see that the Mariners shipmates become accomplices in his come by supporting the killing. Then nature becomes the avenger. The ship turns into a painted ship upon a painted ocean. The sun shines scorching overhead. The ocean begins to hot. Their supply of drinking water runs out and they cannot drink the salty seawater. Their tongues withered away at the root and they could not even speak. At last the other sailors cursed the Mariner for their distress and hung the dead Albatross round his neck as a symbol of sinner.

In this way, the realization of the nature of his guilt and his expiation by suffering the supernatural punishment proceed together. At the end, the readers see that he gets rid from supernatural punishment and gets a new life.    

Coleridges use of symbolism
The sea bird Albatross symbolizes some moral values of hospitality and gratitude. It also becomes a symbol of life itself in the Mariners lifeless world. The act of killing involving the crime of the Mariner, symbolizes mans violation of moral values. The poets deliberate silence about the motive of the crime symbolizes the essential irrationality of the human mind, the mystery of human mind.
However, the use of the supernatural reveals the greatest symbol of the mystery of life of the unseen powers controlling human beings. Coleridge has used a number of supernatural elements, which are rationally inexplicable, e.g. the seraph land, the specters ship with the life in death, the unknown spirit following them etc. Other objects of nature like the sun and the moon are used as powerful symbols in this poem.

The sun symbolizes the rational world, which is benevolent in the beginning of the voyage, but later becomes malicious after the commitment of the crime. The moon symbolizes the divine spirit, which remains indifferent to the Mariners or deals, keeping to her own curse throughout the voyage. The whole poem the sun and the moon, the powers of water and air, the act of killing and that of blessing, the state of solitude and that of goodly company, the nightmare and the awakening the drowning these symbolize that some kind of redemption or reconciliation is at work in nature. The two voices, whose conversations the Mariner hears subconsciously, symbolizes the spiritual and psychological part of the Mariners mind since he is not essentially evil minded, he is conscious of his crime and the need of redemption. He hears subconsciously, The man hath penance done. And penance more will do.

However, the poem involves a paradox for the wedding ceremony symbolizes the beginning of a new life of the two united souls, but the Mariner has reached the end of his life, when nothing remains for him except the past memories of sorrow, sin and repentance. If the Mariners voyage is regarded as a symbolic journey of life, readers note that he also started it happily like the newly married couple. The storm of sea drew the ship to the land of mist. Here mist symbolizes moral confusion from which the Mariner and other sailors were suffering. Some critics have described the bird itself as Christ so the killing of the bird by the Mariner represents the sin of crucification, enabling the bird to embrace the death of martyr and the Ancient Mariner can be seen as the archetypal Judas or the universal sinner who betrays Christ by sinning.

Coleridge juxtaposes the natural and supernatural element
The supernatural elements are not abruptly introduced in to the poem. Indeed, it is difficult to locate exactly where the natural ends and the supernatural begins. In The Ancient Mariner the series of supernatural event mainly begins with the appearance of the ghostly ship with its angelic crew, Death and life-in-Death.

The description of the ship itself is supernatural. The poet does not tell us the exact shape of the ship. At first the ship appears to them like a dot. Gradually it becomes bigger and looks like a patch of mist. The magical ship also keeps on changing its course as it tries to avoid some spirit of the water following to it.

When the Mariner comes across the shape of the ship, he looks at it with horror. The description of the sail of the ship is original. At first the sailors could not see the total shape of the ship, the old sailor first saw the sail of the ship and assumed that it must be a ship with a real sail to help them. The old sailor cries seeing the sail A sail a sail. The bodies of the crew are animated by a troop of angelic beings and the ship moves on without any apparent wind. All these are possible only when the supernatural power acts on something and from the poem it is clear that the spiritual world controls and utilizes the natural world.

The ancient mariner rises up from a deep sleep. But before he regained his consciousness, he felt that he could hear in his soul a dialogue between two voices. When he lies unconscious on the deck, he hears the First Voice and Second Voice discussing his fate.

It is natural that these two voices are the two sides of humanity that every reader possesses. When anybody commits a crime, he feels a kind of repentance within himself. One side of his mind allows the crime, but another side of his mind forbids him. But the description of two voices is, no doubt, supernatural. So long the coming ship and the mariners ship moved by an invisible power which is supernatural but after the sailor gets back his consciousness, he notices that their ship moves by gentle weather which is the sign of the natural. 

Thus the Rime of the Ancient Mariner is essentially a symbolic poem and Coleridges craftsmanship in dealing with different symbols reveals his poetic genius at it best and from above analysis reader can certainly say that nature is both kind and benevolent.

The expedition focuses on Eliza Houghton who was part of the ill fated California bound emigrant party. The Donna party expedition pays much attention on the childhood of Houghton, their tragic overland journey, the rescue and how she picked up the pieces after her parents perished in the tragedy.

    Eliza was the daughter of George Donner and Tamsen Eustis Dozier who was a widow by the time he got married in May 24, 1839. Tamsen was a renowned teacher and writer who had transformed her home to be a local literary centre. After the union of the two, Eliza was born on the eighth of March 1843. She grew up to be a healthy and a self reliant child who would assist her sister Georgia to learn how to walk (The Literature Network, n.d).

Before 1845, nothing much was known about the Rocky Mountains with fertile soils and equable climate. It was not until numerous copies of topographical reports and maps were distributed throughout the United States. This led to mass migration to the pacific coast including George Donner and his elder brother Jacob who selected their destination as California. The mother to Eliza also agreed to the plans of her husband and assisted in planning the logistics.

Emigrant wagons were constructed and oxen were well prepared for the occasion. Extra yokes were provided incase of any emergencies. Cows were also availed to ensure that there was sufficient supply of milk throughout the journey. A watch dog and five saddle horses were part of the requisites of the immigration journey. Seeds and implements that were to be used in the prospective farms were packed in wagons. As part of the outfit, Eliza and family packed necklaces, brass finger rings, earrings and pocket looking glasses. To cater for the exchange of Mexican land grants they also packed laces, satins and velvets (Lavender, 2000). The mother to Eliza was specifically interested in ensuring that there was sufficient clothing for the entire family. She also had specific interest in purchasing womens handiwork, water colors and some books and school supplies which were to be used in a young ladies seminary which she had the intention of forming.

To top up the journey the family also used a liberal sum of money which was to cater for incidental expenses. After all the preparations, it was now official that the departure date was to be April 15, 1846. Everybody was eager to leave. Three wagons had already been packed with all the provisions required. Earlier in the day, the journey made a start with two of our wagons in the lead. The atmosphere was wholly filled with sorrow because some families had to be left behind because they could not afford the high costs associated with the travel.

    After sometime of traveling, it was now time to have our first camp fire where an inventory of outfit was taken for the sake of readers of the Springfield journal. More and more wood was added to the fire thus ensuring that it was a beacon of light. The next morning the family continued with the journey and by eleventh May they were at the land of independence Missouri. Then it was time for the party.

The party was characterized by dozens of men and women who had thronged the streets to replenish their supplies as well as to obtain information about the new town. Business people were making a kill on this because they were selling almost anything and everything that would earn them a penny. Strangers got acquainted with their host and they got to learn a thing or two about them.

After spending some quality time in Missouri, Elizas family resumed travel on May twelfth with plenty of singing and whistling. During the journey, we had to overtake similar wagons though they still had to seek more information about the route ahead which we obtained from some drivers. By May 19 1846 the family was already at the Colonel Russells camp o Soldiers Creek. At this point, it was convenient to take two divisions since the traveling group had already grown big with families of Mr. Reed and the Messra joining in. The animals were at this point allowed to take a rest women did the washing while the men went on to hunt and fish in order to fed for their families (Herte, 1997). At this point, the emigrants had even established relationships with Colonel Russell who used to locate camping around and guide them about crossing fordable streams.

    The next morning everybody in the camp was aroused by a trumpet call. Breakfast had been cooked and served. Then came noon when the families were resting on the grass in a picnic style. All over a sudden, a gust of wind swept by and the sky turned greenish grey. Rumbling sounds could be felt from the distant hills, only to realize that a thunderstorm was actually with them. The company had to scamper for safety to the next camping ground before the rain would o any more harm. They did this with a lot success and they were able to spend their night without any alarm or losses.

The next day they covered fourteen miles over the beautiful prairie. By now, the company was ascending the bluff overlooking the Big Blue. The river was booming and the water levels were rising making it impossible to determine its depth. This made the company to spend the night at the slope of the prairie. However, by sunset they became impatient despite the fact that water levels had risen to twenty inches. They agreed that a raft should be used to carry everything across except the livestock which would be forced to swim across the river. Construction of the raft began and was complete by thirteenth May and was christened Blue Rover (Herte, 1899). They later crossed everything and the animals were force to swim across.

Later, a dispute arose between some emigrants from Oregon and California and they resolved that they had to separate and continue with their journey. They kept on with their journey only to experience intense and dusts in mid June though at this point the company could no longer fear the Indians because they even came to visit them.

    However, the thought of having closed the prairie with minimal difficulties was short lived because the rest of their journey was dominated by adverse weather changes and extreme cases of times when they ran out of their supplies. What followed was that over ninety wagons could not cross Sierra Nevada and dozens of them had to perish due to starvation. At this time, the emigrants had actually resulted to cannibalism. Included in those who perished are the both parents of Eliza (Eliot, 14). Eliza was then left as an orphan who settled first at Fort Sutter, then with a family with a family in Sonoma before staying together with her half sister in Sacramento.

How Donner party expedition influenced Bret Hartes.
Bret Hartes was influenced to write about the outcasts of poker flat due to the numerous challenges that the emigrants had to experience before reaching the Pacific coast. In his article, he relates the pacific coast with the Sandy bar which lies over a steep mountain range. To reach the location, it involved traveling under severe conditions. In the Donna party expedition, Eliza cites how the families left behind were sorrowful and a feeling of loneliness had engulfed the area. Similarly, Bret cites that, once the escort to the Sand y bar disappeared hysterical fears rocked the air. He equates Colonel Russell of the Party to Mr. Oakhurst. This is evident where he cites that, Mr. Oakhurst knew that scarcely half the journey to Sandy bar was accomplished and the party were not equipped or provisioned for delay (Herte, 1997).

Bret also tries to relate the character of Colonel Russell where he actually states that, Mr. Oakhurst seldom troubled himself with sentiment, still less with property, but he had a vague idea that the situation was not fortunate, (Lavender, 2000). He also tries to relate the experience that the emigrants faced while crossing the prairie. According to Eliza Houghton, they crossed the prairie with minimal difficulties which definitely came as a surprise. This, he relates by citing that, as the shadows crept slowly up the mountain, a slight breeze rocked the tops of the pine trees, and moaned through their long and gloomy aisles. The ruined cabin, patched and covered with pine-boughs was set apart for the ladies, (Eliot, 4)

    Still, Bret compares the time when the emigrants were experiencing extreme cases of snow with what Mr.Oakhaust were experiencing while going to the Sandy Barf on the mountains. In this, Bret cites that just before dawn, some snowflakes fell on him. In his article he cites that, What could be seen of the landscape appeared magically changed. He looked over the valley, and summed up the present and future in two worlds---Snowed in (The Literature Network, n.d).

    At this point, we can conclude that Bret has found a way of explaining the numerous challenges that were experienced by Eliza and family. This he has perfected by explaining what they Mr.Oakhaust had to go through before reaching the Sandy Bar.

1. Passage As I passed the wreck of the old meeting house..... till I reached freedom or the grave (Andrews and Gates 836).
Significance The passage is narrated by Linda Brent when she was walking by the remnants of the old meeting house and her desire to be free was resurrected as a result of the memories of her father. It was because of this rebirth of motivation that she attempted to leave her children behind and make a desperate attempt to acquire freedom.

2. Passage The calm, deliberate composure with which he spoke..... and my blood curdled in vain  (Andrews and Gates 262).
Significance The passage is from Nat Turners narrations in his confessions. It has been narrated to describe Nat Turners state of appearance and mind. The narrator, having presented a long narration on the actions of Turner, speaks of his personal observations of the man and it is evident that the narrator was deeply disturbed by these observations and yet somewhat inspired by the sheer will and strength that Turner showed in the face of death.

3. Passage I now understand what to me had been.....the pathway from slavery to freedom (Andrews and Gates 303).
Significance The passage quoted above is of a great degree of importance because it is the expression of Frederick Douglass pleasure and joy when he realizes that his masters ranting on why a slave should not be educated gave him the perfect reason to acquire education. Douglass asserts that he was overjoyed with the oncoming of this realization. This is more clearly evident when he further states that that which to him was a great evil, to be carefully shunned, was to me a great good, to be diligently sought... (Andrews and Gates 304).

4. Passage And I wondered greatly at these miracles..... I had seen before in the heavens (Andrews and Gates 253).
Significance This passage is a narration given by Nat Turner of the time when he felt closer to the Holy Ghost than he had ever felt before. While describing his desire to feel the Spirit closer, he expresses a desire to serve the Spirit and to receive a sign from the Spirit to begin his cleansing of sorts. The excerpt quoted above is his narration of the sign that he received and the realization that it brought to him. It was because of this sign that Nat Turner saw the drawing of blood in light of Jesus and judged it fair to draw blood to serve the Holy Ghost.

5. Passage You have seen how a man..... slave was made a man (Andrews and Gates 326).
Significance The narration given above is from Frederick Douglass Narrative of the life. In this small expression, Douglass has suggested that his life underwent a complete transformation. In this transformation, Douglass revolted against the basic and most brutal principles of slavery. This can be seen in the paragraphs to follow in which he speaks of his battle (Andrews and Gates 331) with Mr. Covey and when his narration begins to refer to his employer as Covey instead of Mr. Covey as an indication of his newfound independence.

6. Passage But when I reflected that I was a slave..... my heart sank within me (Andrews and Gates 783) .
Significance The excerpt quoted above is from Linda Brents narration of her lover when she desired to marry her colored lover but this desire was shot down by the merciless nature of her mistress and the social norms of that time that looked down upon any slave woman who sought to marry a colored man while still a slave. She speaks of how she overheard her mistress coming down on a younger mullato child who wanted to marry a colored man but the very expression of her desire to do so led her to be threatened by her mistress.

7. Passage It was the first of a long series..... I was doomed to be a witness and a participant (Andrews and Gates 284) .
Significance The above excerpt is from Frederick Douglass narration of the overseer of the farms and slaves, Mr. Plummer. Douglass expresses that Mr. Plummer was a man with a heart of iron that would not even come close to melting as he would strike lash on the bare backs of slaves with his customary blood soaked cow skin. Douglass was a child at that time and in this statement he expresses his helplessness as he found himself in the middle of the bloody transactions in which Mr. Plummer would mercilessly whip whosoever disobeyed him.

8. Passage He is a complete fanatic, or plays his part most admirably (Andrews and Gates 261) .
Significance   The passage elaborates over Nat Turner as he was found during his run from Mr. Phipps. The excerpt suggests that Nat Turner was a man completely lost in his world and who either chose to indulge himself completely in this world of his or put on a highly convincing act of doing so. Turner was close to frantic in his attempts to escape, and his decision to surrender when welcomed by the cocking sound of Mr. Phipps gun was one that was anything but what was expected from him. The excerpt from a passage in the discussion that speaks of his unusual behavior and his physical and emotional stature.

9. Passage There may be sophistry in all this..... the practice of them impossible (Andrews and Gates 801).
Significance  In the context of the above excerpt, Linda Brent talks about her desire to be owned by a man who she could securely approach and depend upon for taking care of her and her child with compassion. She asserts that while it may seem that her intentions are far from those that they appear to be, it is necessary to note that her position as a slave did not leave her any room to channel concern towards the preservation of morality and it would therefore be unfair for her to be judged on these grounds.

10. Passage I have found that..... a thoughtless one (Andrews and Gates 349).
Significance In the context of the excerpt quoted above, the narrator speaks about how an improvement in the quality of life leads to the development of desires for freedom and independence. Frederick Douglass speaks of the days when his life got better as a result of improved employment conditions and how he came to realize that one of the few things that sustain slavery is the maintenance of conditions that support or allow the time or capacity to ponder. Douglass believes that a slave cannot be expected to remain loyal and devoted to his master until he is deprived of the right to think over himself and his life.

Part Two
1. Both Nat Turner and Douglass comment on the purposes, authorities and destinies of their narratives as ones given to do nothing more than communicate the sequence and series of their actions. Both of them showed no regrets over their actions in their narratives. However, it is also clear that both, Turner and Douglass, chose to criticize exploitation by Whites heavily in their narratives.
With regard to the relationship between the text and the para-text, it is apparent that the authors have made use of this relationship to ensure that the narratives given by Turner and Douglass are interpreted and perceived in the same light as desired by the central theme of the book. It is perhaps because of the same reason that the para-texts are placed to follow the narratives so that the reader is left with the impression that the author desires to leave on the readers mind.

Perhaps no para-text in the book provides a better example of this white exploitation than the part in which the author refers to Nat Turners narration of events and states that The calm, deliberate composure with which he spoke of his late deeds and intentions, the expression of his fiend-like face when excited by enthusiasm, still bearing the stains of the blood of helpless innocence about him clothed with rags and covered with chains yet daring to raise his manacled hands to heaven, with a spirit soaring above the attributes of man I looked on him and my blood curdled in my veins (Andrews and Gates 262).

References to actions through words such as unparalleled and inhumane massacre in the paratext serve to further clarify how the authors have chosen to present the main text to the reader.
However, it is essential to highlight that there is a rather strange absence of paratext in the case of the narration given by Douglass. It can therefore be inferred that that author has refrained from adding such para-texts in cases where the narrator in question has not taken on an aggressive role.
While the author had an opportunity to do so in the case of Douglass when he rebelled against the brutality of Mr. Coven, the text remain free of para-text and the narration continued without question or statement. There is no intervening para-text in this case and the author has chosen to let the chapter constitute nothing more than Frederick Douglass narration of events.

2. Linda invokes the memory of Nat Turner and her father when she passes by the wreckage of the old meeting house. It reminds her of the fundamental lessons that her father gave her and the inferences she made from Nat Turners struggles. The memory reminds her of the reasons because of which one should attempt to seek and pursue freedom and that there is nothing more valuable than the acquisition of the same.

It suggests that her revolt against slavery was one that was not initially one of her objectives or desires, but was a lesson she learned from her elders and those who had been enslaved before her. The desire to take action and revolt against slavery was somewhat absent until she found the motivation to revolt against it from the likes of Nat Turner and her father both of whom she revered.
Linda Brents plan was to hide herself at a friends house and to remain hidden in that house for a few days. The objective of her action was to bring her master, the doctor, to a standing where he would have no other option but to sell her. What makes Linda Brents plight and flight different from those of Turner and Douglass is the fact that throughout the time that she hoped struggled and prayed for freedom, it was hardly ever for the sake of her own being.

Her mind, body and soul appeared to be longing for independence and a better life only for the sake of her children. In contrast, Nat Turner was powered by his fanaticism and Douglass was motivated by a desire to somehow escape all the pain, suffering and misery that he had been observing from the days when he was a child.

Her intentions are far more selfless than those of Turner or Douglass and proof of this statement can be seen in the hesitation she showed in running away when her grandmother pleaded her to stay. She only ran once she felt that her master and mistress would never sell her children. This can be seen clearly when she states that before running away, she knelt down and kissed them, pouring forth a prayer to God for guidance and support in the perilous step she was about to take (Andrews and Gates 836).

Even after she had run away, her motivation remained her objective. This can be judged through her assertion when she states that she was daily hoping to hear that my master had sold her children for she knew who was on the watch to buy them... She was encountering dangers for the sake of freeing them (Andrews and Gates 847).

This can also be seen in the fact that in almost every issue she discusses, her priority appears to be nothing more beyond the safety and freedom of her children.

Linda Brent, upon the birth of her daughter, addresses the plight of being a slave woman clearly when she states that Superadded to the burden common to all, they have wrongs, and sufferings, and mortifications peculiarly their own (Andrews and Gates 823).

In this regard, enslaved womens efforts to redress their wrongs and to relieve their sufferings are peculiarly their own because as evident from Linda Brents attempt to escape, their priorities are different from those of male prisoners. To them, independence comes as the opportunity to exercise free will with regard to their children and husband. They do not hold desires for the sake of their own independence.

Furthermore, they do not want anything more than to be bought out of slavery by their husbands. This is in sharp contrast to the desires of enslaved men who choose to ponder over the intricate relationship between independence and slavery during their lives rather than over the role of women in their lives and the pleasures of having their own families.

Birches and Into My Own
Robert Frost is one of the brightest poets of his generation as what can be proved by his several Pulitzer Prize recognitions for poetry (Robert Frost). As a child who grew up under the influence of Shakespeare and Wordsworths works, Frost grew up liking poetry and literature. At a very young age, Frost already liked reading and analyzing poems, and this became one of the strongest catalysts that moved him into pursuing poetry. Frost became renowned for his vivid and imaginative depictions of human despair. This has already been considered as a typical and consistent theme in most of Frosts works. In looking deep into the poets life, it may appear clear why he developed such kind of tendency to write sad poems. Frost went through some of the saddest and most painful experience any person can go through. At a very vulnerable age, Frost lost his father, his sister, and eventually as a man who just dreamt of a happy family, Frost also lost his two children as well as his wife (Robert Frost). These deaths brought the author into the darkest depths of sadness during some points in his life, and this kind of sadness and longing has been observable in most of his poems since then. Over the years, Frost has already produced a lot of works that seemed to center on this emotion, longing. Two notable poems that can be observed to employ the said theme are, Birches and Into my Own. This discussion shall then focus on explicating the significance of the theme of longing in these two works. The difference in terms of meaning shall also be analyzed by looking into how Frost used the said theme differently in the two poems. Furthermore, this discussion shall analyze the overall structure of these poems under the formalist perspective by scrutinizing the elements of form present in the aforementioned poems.

Birches
This poem is one of the most reviewed and analyzed poems by Robert Frost. Birches is a 60-line poem which mentions the authors views about life, childhood, happiness, desperation and other ambiguous symbols. The poem is a blank verse with several disparities on the customary iambic foot. As what can be observed, the poem follows no specific rhythm however, each line always has in itself a strong thought or word which makes each stanza emotionally implicative. A lot of critics and first-time readers of Frosts poems easily relates this poem to the joys of childhood. Although that specific claim appears acceptable, the poets life may reveal deeper meanings. As what has been mentioned in the introductory part of this discussion, the poet has gone through several painful experiences in his life. He grew up being used to seeing his loved ones die. At a very young age, Frost witnessed his father and sisters passing. And when he finally had his own family, his two children and his wife also left him. From this angle, it can be said that Frost might have been used to the feeling of desperation for long. However, it can nonetheless be assumed that there have been times in Frosts life that are more pleasant that these bitter experiences. Those times for example, during Frosts earlier childhood, when his father was still alive, must have given him joy. This can be the kind of happiness portrayed in this poem, Birches. The following lines can be observed to portray Frosts reminiscing of his happier childhood years

I should prefer to have some boy bend themAs he went out and in to fetch the cowsSome boy too far from town to learn baseball, Whose only play was what he found himself,Summer or winter, and could play alone.One by one he subdued his fathers treesBy riding them down over and over again Birches, Lines 23-29 (Lehman 224)

From these lines, Frosts memories of childhood innocence and fun become evident. Since this discussion draws on the theme of longing, Frosts childhood can be related to this kind of longing as the poets childhood must have been the object of longing pertained to this poem. Considering the painful experiences encountered by the author throughout his lifetime, it is easy to assume that the kind of longing he might have gone through is the yearning for the happier moments of his life. In the following excerpt, the poets longing for the happier moments of childhood can be clearly observed as he related such kind of pleasure to the sunshine in a winter morning, the breeze and the suns warmth
Often you must have seen them Loaded with ice a sunny winter morningAfter a rain. They click upon themselvesAs the breeze rises, and turn many-coloredAs the stir cracks and crazes their enamel.Soon the suns warmth makes them shed crystal shells Shattering and avalanching on the snow crustSuch heaps of broken glass to sweep away  Lines 5-12 (223)

Obviously, the poet was pertaining to this part of his life as the more pleasant one as compared to the more recent part of his life which was already filled with grief due to the loss of his loved ones. Furthermore, Frosts depiction of the trees movement also entails some meaningful thoughts about his childhood. The poets way of describing the movements of the trees seems like he was pertaining to the easiness and uncomplicatedness of childhood life where lifes momentum goes as easy as a branchs up and down motion (Lentricchia) as what is expressed in this part of the poem
When I see birches bend to left and rightAcross the lines of straighter darker trees,I like to think some boys been swinging them.But swinging doesnt bend them down to stay Lines 1-4 (223)
 However, sadness still rises from the poets words as he seems to admit that such kind of peace and calm does not really stay for long.

Into my Own
On the other hand, Into my Own is Frosts succinct depiction of a child who has decided to break free from all the things that constrain him from his desires. This poem consists of 14 short lines that follow a rhyme scheme of AABBCCDDEEFFGG. Unlike the poem first discussed, rhyme and consistent rhythm are very much observable in this poem.  But just like the first one, this poem also tackles an equally emotional theme which roots from a childs wanting to break free from home.
I should not be withheld but that somedayinto their vastness I should steal away,Fearless of ever finding open land,or highway where the slow wheel pours the sand.  Into my Own, Lines 4-8 (Frost 11)

From these lines, a familiar desire of breaking free from something confining is being introduced by the poet. In relation to the theme of longing discussed in the previous poem, it can be observed that the act of longing in this poem both comes from the boy (the subject) and the people around him. If in the first poem the longing was centered on the poets desire to go back to the happier moments of his childhood, in this poem, it appears that the poet  who also portrayed himself as a child  focuses on his wanting to experience freedom for the first time as a youth. This kind of wanting has always been a common subject about youth. In the succeeding lines from this work, the presence of this kind of longing can be clearly observed

I do not see why I should eer turn back,Or those should not set forth upon my trackTo overtake me, who should miss me hereAnd long to know if still I held them dear. Lines 9-12 (11)
However, aside from the poets longing to achieve some sense of freedom, these lines also portray a longing from the boys loved ones and this kind of longing centers on their wanting to make the child stay. However, as the poet notes, his longing for freedom is not supposed to change him negatively, instead Frost notes, They would not find me changed from him they knew-- Only more sure of all I thought was true (11).

In both poems, it is incontestable that Frosts innate poetic abilities were employed. However, apart from this reality, it can be observed that the theme of longing became very implicative in the poets objective to displace as much emotions he can to affect the readers. The usage of this theme also says a lot about the authors strength in overcoming his personal despairs. The depiction of such theme also effectively sends off the authors perspective on the reality of losing someone or something important. It is quite clear that the poet wants the readers to look at longing as a learning experience, where they can teach themselves how to be patient and persevering. Furthermore, it is evident that the author points out that this kind of emotion is indeed universal, and that a lot of things in this world can really make people long and desire. Both poems displayed Frosts undeniable poetic talent. But more importantly, this discussion was able to prove that Frost is indeed a master when it comes to the depiction of the deepest of human emotions as what can be observed in his use of the emotional theme of longing in these two works.

Kate Chopins short novel The Awakening tells of the experiences of Edna Pontillier, who struggles within the roles of wife, mother, and woman in 19th century society. Edna is repression embodied her love affair with Robert frees her to confront the binding straits of her life as more than an acceptable norm. This freedom, and Ednas slow realization of self, are often viewed as concluding in her suicide in the comforting embrace of the ocean waves. However, as Robert Treu explains in his examination of critical readings on the closing chapter of  the novel,  Surviving Edna A Reading of the Ending of The Awakening,  the ambiguity of the final scene while possibly indicative of suicide is not to be the sole drawn conclusion. Drawing on his own examinations of the text, as well as the theories of Russian critic Mikhail Bakhtin, Treu illustrates how the narrow definition of Ednas moments in the sea as a preclude to suicide can hinder the reading of the text through the imposition of ideological restraint . Treus argument is a compelling one, bringing to light a major issue at the heart of critical theory whereby the imposition of self-realized conclusions can and do influence the readings of such stories where the endings are intentionally left open-ended by the author. More importantly, it raises the question of how such conclusions are used to represent the overall novel. Ednas  life becomes dimensioned within the context of her supposed death which prevents a practical and three-dimensional understanding of the world of 19th century women.

    Upon the publication of The Awakening, Chopin experienced a major backlash from moral America, who condemned Edna Pontillier as a deplorable example of womanhood. Adulterous and indifferent to her children, Edna presented the antithesis of proper femininity for American social critics. They, like modern critics, viewed the final passages of the novel as a pretext to suicide.,  it was too late the shore was far behind her, and her strength was gone  (Chopin 153). Seizing on these words and the example of her relationship with her children and husband, 19th century critics employed Ednas desire for something more in her life and her eventual ending as proof of her status as a fallen and morally corrupt woman. Both deplorable and fitting, as Treu explains, critics viewed  Ednas romantic yearning as a character flaw which contributes to her death ... adulterous behavior was clearly reprehensible and her offstage suicide an emphatic piece of narrative punctuation, a moral period to the sentence which ends her life  (21).

    More recently, as an examination of Chopins work saw a resurgence with the womens movement in the 1970s,  Moral condemnation has been replace by a gentler sense of correcting the moody and the muddle-headed  (Treu 21). Approaching the novel from a feminist perspective has done much to draw a sympathetic and historically realistic understanding of the 19th centurys stifling effect on women. However, as with the previous critics view of suicide as a morally fitting ending to a morally bankrupt example of femininity, the more recent approaches of what Treu classifies as  feminist fatalism  (22) places Ednas life within a new set of restraints. Viewing her suicide as  triumph not a surrender  (Treu 22), Ednas life preceding the suicide becomes purely fatalistic and we lose some of the subtleties of Chopins experimentation with the novel and her characters. A relatively new genre in 19th century American literature, Mikhail Bakhtin explained that the novel of Chopins era  reflects more deeply, more essentially, more sensitively and rapidly, reality itself in the process of unfolding  (qtd. in Treu 23). In choosing this particular genre to tell the tale of Edna Pontellier, Chopin is attempting to develop her characters beyond mere representations of ideas to a fuller realization of humanity.

    In insisting on suicide as the ending for Edna Pontellier, critics have long sought to either condemn or empower the image of womanhood represented in her character. However, as Treu and Bakhtin both note, by concentrating the entire interpretation within the context of her suicide they fail to explore the deeper mechanics involved within the scope of the novels genre and Chopins personal understanding of 19th century womanhood. To see suicide as triumph is equally as fatalistic as viewing it as moral retribution, both reducing the 19th century woman to a single-dimension whereby death becomes the only choice for such a woman whether we view her as evil or free. Chopins Edna is not meant to be one-dimensional but instead a literary representation of reality, with many facets of character that cannot be defined by a single ideological approach.

Prose in literature usually refers to ordinary form of spoken and written language such as novels, short stories, essays etc. As opposed to poetry the unit in prose is sentence and not line. Prose is derived from the Latin word Prosa which means in phrase, which was from the phrase prosa oratio that refers to straightforward or unadorned speech. (Bercovitch  Patell, 2005)

During the period of the First and Second World Wars works of literature were referred to as Modernist literature. The period before modernism was the Victoria era that was characterized by certainty, conservatism and objective truth. These attitudes greatly influenced the modernism era. (Bercovitch  Patell, 2005)

Ideas of Karl Marx in his political writings together with the psychoanalytic theories of Sigmund Freud were also of great importance to the modernism movement. It is also true to say that modernist writers were greatly inspired by movements of impressionism and cubism.

Great modernist writers included Virginia Woolf and the famous American poet, Ezra Pound. Gertrude Stein famous for her line Rose is a rose is a rose is a rose is a great writer of this modernism era. (Bercovitch  Patell, 2005)

A Short Story of Undying Love and Devotion

    A Worn Path (1940) is a short story written by Eudora Welty about the undying love and devotion of Phoenix Jackson to his grandson. Every year she goes to town to get the supply of medicine which his grandson needs in order to survive after he accidentally swallowed lye a few years passed (Welty, 1940). The throat of the boy is severely damaged that he sometimes experiences difficulty in swallowing and breathing. His grandmother is the only person in the world who can take care of him. So old Phoenix Jackson once again make the perilous journey to the city that cold December day.

    The story is told from a third person point of view. It emphasizes the natural symbolism of the surroundings. In this way, the reader can empathize with Phoenix with what she is going through, as her thoughts and actions are narrated. At the beginning of the story, the reader is introduced to Phoenix Jackson described as a small, Negro woman. Her name alone is very symbolic. Her name represents the mythical bird Phoenix of the ancient Egypt. According to myths, this bird comes out of Arabia every half of the century to Heliopolis, where it burned itself on the altar and rose again from its ashes, young and handsome. Phoenix Jackson is like the mythical Phoenix bird nearing the end of its life. In order to walk, she requires an aid of an old umbrella.  But though old and wrinkling, a golden color is running beneath her skin. Her cheeks are light up by a yellow burning under the dark and her eyes are blue with age. I think that the color of her skin represents the golden feathers of the Phoenix. She needs to prolong the life of her grandson who I think represents the next Phoenix of rebirth when she dies. The grandson is compared to a bird who wears a little path quilt and peeps out with an open mouth. Her trip to the city to acquire the medicine supply symbolizes the mythological journey that the Phoenix takes to the sun to die. She is too old and maybe this trip is the last for her.

    Indeed, she is not suited to take the long trips. She has to go one cold December morning in the woods where the dark road went down because of overhead live-oaks. The depressing darkness that the author has created to surround Phoenix in this scene does not affect her positive outlook. She is very determined to go and nothing can put her down. She first encountered a black dog. She was startled but was immediately ready to defend her self. She hit the dog with her cane and then she went in the ditch, like a little puff of milkweed. Here, the author makes a contradiction of the main characters strong will with her small, frail physique.

    Phoenix next encounter is a young hunter who repeatedly discouraged her from continuing her journey. He assumes that there is no important reason for the old womans journey.  In fact, he thinks that Phoenix is only going to town to see Santa Claus. Phoenix has no reaction after the hunter has made this comment. As described in the story The deep lines in her face went into a fierce and different radiation. I assume that Phoenix is not pleased by this statement. But then again, she saw that a nickel fell out of the hunters pocket. She picked up the nickel when the hunter was distracted by his dogs. When she finally pocketed the nickel, she sees a bird fly by and says to herself God watching me the whole time. I come to stealing. This action must be out of character that she is bothered by her conscience.

    When the dogs stop their fighting, the hunter once again focused his attention to Phoenix. I thought at first that he saw him stealing his nickel and he wants to reclaim it from her. He pointed his gun to her and asked her whether she is scared. She replies, replies No, sir, I seen plenty go off closer by, in my day, and for less than what I done. By saying this, she is indirectly admitting what she did whether or not the hunter did see her take the money. The hunter puts down his gun and states, You must be a hundred years old and scared of nothing. Id give you a dime if I had any money with me. But you take my advice and stay home, and nothing will happen to you. I think at this point, the hunter experienced a change of heart. He no longer wants to prevent the old woman from going on in her journey. He realizes that he cannot order her to go home and she is bound to go on.  He realizes how strong her will is and lets her go on her way. I bound to go on my way, mister Phoenix tells the man, and they go off in different directions.

    Aside from determination, luck is also in Phoenix side. Her encounter with the man who helped her to get up also allowed her also to pocket a nickel. In crossing a creek by a log, she closes her eyes and trust in fate that she can get across safely. Arriving at the city, a lady helped her lace her shoes.

     Phoenix undying love and devotion to her grandson are the sources of strength for Phoenix to accomplish her journey. Her handicaps do not hinder her from taking the long and difficult journey towards the city. Though she encountered many obstacles along the way, she uses her inner strengths and prevails over every barrier. She relies on her trustworthy feet to guide her through the woods and not so much from her impaired vision. Her intelligence makes up for her feeble body. Her willpower makes up for her aged memory. But most of all, her love for her grandson is what keeps her going. She is truly a Phoenix at heart.

Present essay focuses on Walt Whitmans two missions in American poetry and society, as reflected in Whitmans poems, such as Song of Myself, and When I Heard the Learned Astronomer. These missions may be interpreted as promoting democratic values and individualism through picturesque poetic images and ideas.

Whitmans Mission
The theme of individual freedom and valuing individual, as a center of autonomous decisions and creative development is among central themes in Whitmans Song of Myself. Whitman obviously posits this theme not only in descriptive terms, but as the mission, he will promote during the rest of his life. Individualism is already promoted by Whitmans through the formal structure of his poem.
Whitman puts the self in the center of narration, however, the I, which he portrays, is not only his own personality, but abstract personality, belonging to each American. It is a personality of the American nation in general. It is expressed by Whitman as great, expansive, exploding and always transcending itself  I pass death with the dying, and birth with the new-washed babe .... and I am not contained between my hat and boots (section 7).

Hence, Whitmans individualism is individualism of the nation as free and autonomous subject. Such stance obviously certifies to his democratic credentials and views about democratic development. Several examples of this may be characteristic   in all people I see myself, none more and not one a barleycorn lessand the good or bad I say of myself I say of them (Section 20).

Whitmans individualism is all-embracing and historical I am large, I contain multitudes. (Section 51). Whitman realizes himself as a small particle of all people, living in the United States For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you. (Section 1).

The celebration of Individuality is linked with Whitmans compassion to American people and deep understanding of their problems. In the sixth section of Whitmans poem a little child asks narrator What is the grass.

Through poetically answering this nave question, Whitman understands that grass in childs hands becomes a symbol of national revival. Grass is a sign of nature, which unites disparate Americans and gives them a sense of universality and joint origin. Grass is everywhere and that is why it is an ultimate symbol of democracy, understood as the participation of everyone in common causes and joint resolution of common problems. The image of grass, which often is used in Song of Myself is the sign of mortality and death. Grass grows on the graves of the dead the death is the process through which nation reproduces itself  that is why it is equally the sign of democracy.
The theme of democratic communition of nation is vividly seen in famous section with the twenty-ninth bather, in which a woman observes 28 men bathing in the ocean, wanting to join them. She is an invisible 29-th bather. However, this scene includes the flavor of eroticism it is really about the commonality of each member of democratic nation.

Another theme through which Whitman promotes his version of individualism and understanding of democracy is the theme of compassion to others. In the twenty-fifth section he passionately says I do not ask the wounded personal how he feels, I myself become the wounded person.

Whitmans conception of individualism may be discerned in the verse When I Heard the Learned Astronomer. Here, he shows that individual contemplation of nature and world gives much more freedom, than rigorous and strict scientific analysis, breaking individuality of objects in separate particles  When the proofs, the figures, were ranged in columns before me How soon, unaccountable, I became tired and sick  Till rising and gliding out, I wanderd off by myself, In the mystical moist night-air, and from time to time,  

Lookd up in perfect silence at the stars. From this quote it is evident that for Whitmans passive contemplation is the best method of understanding nature.

Whitmans discourse of individualism and democracy is all embracing. The ideological nature of Whitmans poesy is radical humanism, based on compassion to American people and understanding of individual Self as a part of collective Self Every kind for itself and its own, for me mine male and female, For me those that have been boys and that love women, For me the man that is proud and feels how it stings to be slighted, For me the sweet-heart and the old maid, for me mothers and the mothers of mothers, For me lips that have smiled, eyes that have shed tears, For me children and the begetters of children. In this part Whitman shows that he equally values every category and group of American society.

Whitmans individualism is also reflected in his understanding of religion and faith as a personal matter.

However such approach goes in line with Protestant tradition, in Whitmans interpretation it appears as the celebration of ultimate and unrestrained individualism  I do not despise you priests, all time, the world over,  My faith is the greatest of faiths and the least of faiths, Enclosing worship ancient and modern and all between ancient and modern, Believing I shall come again upon the earth after five thousand years.

To sum it up, Whitmans poetry is reflected in two distinct mission, he promoted through his life democracy and individualism. These two missions are strongly dialectically linked. Individuality in Whitmans interpretation has several levels. The first is personal level  autonomous subject, endowed with liberty and will. The second is the level of nation, which is understood by Whitman as a Spiritual totality of all people living in the United States. The synthesis of these individualities is the primary precondition for democracy. For Whitman, democracy rests on compassion to other people and promoting common cause of freedom and human dignity. Individualism is also expressed in Whitmans contemplative attitude to nature, portrayed in his verse When I Heard the Learned Astronomer.

    This early 20th century novel takes the reader through a fictional journey that is more akin to the wonderful world of utopia, where social setups are ideal and the system works efficiently to everyones benefits. The place is described as the land of women and referred to as Herland, where there is a complete absence of all men and the children are all girls. The story follows the narrative of Vandyck Jennings who coupled with two of his old school mates Terry Nicholson and Jeff Margrave forms the three leads in the novel casually referred to as Van, Terry and Jeff. Their urge for exploration leads them to this fabled town that exists on its own without intervention from the general population and is comprised exclusively of women and their girl children. Gilman goes on to describe how perfect this place is with no hints of war, violence or disease, the traits that plague the man-made world Van, Terry and Jeff have come from. Those three get immediately fascinated by the flowing rivers, the lack of fascination for material possessions, the environmentally conscious all-vegetarian society and the better-than-your-world sentiments that Gillman exhibits in her depiction of the place. That depiction takes a strongly suggestive narration that imparts her inclinations towards feminism throughout the novel. She is inclined towards gender education engulfing the text with the true potential of women thereby attempting to eliminate their concerns of inferiority.

Feminist Viewpoints
    Gillman depicts this fully functional world of women with no men for support in order to make one strong sweeping statement not only can women survive in a world without their male counterparts but can also thrive upon it. Her work is reminiscent of a person deeply engaged in thoughts pertaining to the inner workings of society. Her references are direct and easy to interpret. The narration embodies gender education putting the sex that is generally regarded as the weaker sex square into the limelight. She deems women to be equal to men in all aspects and is suggestive of them performing even better than men in similar surroundings. The utopian picture she depicts is immediately recognizable as enforcing a stigma against women which renders them a strict spot in society, to serve men and abide by their rules. Through Herland, Gillman urges the women to step out into other fields and shrug these rules away as their capabilities are not simply restricted to the husband. According to her, women can regulate the society better with their distinct set of characteristics of tolerance and love-for-peace in order to result in a vegetarian society, free of war and prejudice.

    Van, from whose perspective the story is being narrated, takes a keen interest in the seemingly divine way the women reproduce. It is the one real hindrance to a society devised completely of women. In the case of Herland, the women reproduce through a process known as parthenogenesis that is akin to asexual reproduction. The process of becoming pregnant on their own accorded to this reproductive genetics renders them incapable of producing male children and hence, the land only comprises girls. This quality trumps their need of men completely furthering the rather patronizing tone of the whole society. Be that as it may, the three men are so fascinated by the perfect environment that they end up offering to marry three of the women. The women accept this invitation to naturalize their environment with male influences to which they can resort to for insemination. This alleviates the patronizing tone a little so as to continue upon the two-sex norms the societies of the rest of the world are used to. The fact that the women agreed to natural impregnation at the hands of these three men serves to show how important maternity and motherhood is to them. Moreover, Gillman portrays the very act of parthenogenesis as the sole goal for each female member, further solidifying their strict priorities to family life.

     Gillman uses the three male leads rather effectively to broadcast her feminist viewpoints. What is a key factor to remember in the entire script is the date it was written. In 1915, the freedom of women was hardly as vast and accepting as it is today. Men preferred that their wives never left home so that their first and only priority was their husbands. They were considered incompetent in making workplace decisions due to their reservations of intelligence, in working for the same jobs as men due to their reservations of physical strength and even in their roles as mothers due to their reservations regarding motherhood. Thus, writing a book about those very traits completely debunks those reservations. The three men representing the outside world hold the man-less society of Herland in complete reverence as a result. They are held aback by their counterparts functioning in a complex system of economy and culture where each woman is assigned a specialist task of sowing, weaving, farming, etc while all others share the common maternal goal of mothering a child. This is simply Gillmans attempt at fixing the restricted minds of men who proclaim that women cannot share their responsibilities. When Van exclaims, The solidity of those women was something amazing (Gilman), a sense of ingenious unity is spurred in the reader with regards to women in general and that is the message Gilmans trying to invoke.

    This book carries with it an air of social reform. At the time Gilman sat down to write this particular piece, World War I had just begun. Women were fighting for equal rights as much as they were fighting for the stigma of inferiority for men. Gilman, in her complex plights of self-indulgence and depression, began engaging herself in social reformation by educating women of their capabilities and willpower. Herland was an attempt at encouraging women to think independently and harness their true potential both maternally and professionally. Her aim was to eliminate gender differences and enlighten the masses of the limitless powers of women who knew how to take a stand for themselves. It was perhaps for this very reason that she chose Van, a stereotypical male with as much an ego as a broader perspective on life, who stumbles upon the intricacies of this woman-oriented world and is fascinated by how faultless it is (Schellenbourg). When Van and his two friends do decide to stay and marry three of the women of Herland, it shows how adaptive the women are to new ideas and change as opposed to men, even though later Terry gets exiled for succumbing to his male instincts and attempt a rape.

Education on Infant upbringing
    Prior to the advent of twin sex families in Herland, the women only had daughters. Gillman depicts these children as the main purpose of existence for the women of that place, highlighting their maternal inclinations. Women are essential ingredients to the family and their instincts drive them to extreme measures to look out for the betterment of their offspring. Thus, a society comprised entirely of women would render the infant a perfect upbringing environment. The world around would be completely devoid of hatred, conflicting differences, war, gender inequalities and even meat (since its a vegetarian society, eliminating the need for the slaughtering of animals). As a result, none of the societal influences would be incorporated as personality traits for the young child. This sets out an important message as Gillman tries to educate women (and men as well) that the society is responsible for the upbringing of the child not the parents (Simone). Thus, arguably, since much of the childhood is spent in acquiring education from external sources, bad parenting can result in a seemingly misplaced child and the society can play its educational part in making up for that where as the counter side of it may also be true, since bad societal influences can be made up for by good parenting. Thus the responsibility is equally divided.

    Gillman infuses many ideas into this writing through careful analogies with the present world as it exists. Her style of portraying the story through Van depicts the need to relate with men while making such suggestions about the potential of women. Its also particularly important to take into consideration the concept of recreational sex depicted by her, as she deems it unnecessary while the men are all for it. This is indicative of the one-track minds of men who respond more to their nature than to their brain. She reinvigorates the feminist viewpoints as she points out the effectiveness with which Herland was run and in early 20th century, was not just a bold measure to take but an enlightening one as well.

The man named Felterman is hired to investigate Allison Jane Rose. Allison Jane Ross is suspected to have a possible involvement with a master organization or back-up group involved in a continuing action of the subversive kind of charges. Though there is no direct connection to be found between her and in the present trial, Felterman together with his group wouldnt risk the possibility. Felterman became friends with her to discover her secrets secrets that may lead a particular case to truth. But Felterman and Ross found a kind of unique emotional and physical attachment with each other. They develop a passionate love affair. Ross cheerful approach in life despite her painful experiences particularly when she was in prison, her patterns of friendship and her energy to introduce him to risks make him likes her more. His life became colorful when he met her far different to his dull, black and white lifestyle in the office with a dusty table at which he sat down to write his reports. As she slowly discloses herself to him, it is becoming more and more difficult to leave her.  

    When she tells stories about her time and experiences in prison, he softens. When they talk out of scrutiny and out of investigation, both can really see a great connection and attachment. One night Felterman couldnt take it anymore. His conscience is bugging him, and so says that he has been secretly spying her and that their affair is planned. But sensitive as she is, she hugged him knowing that Felterman risks everything in simply admitting the truth. In this case the question of duty and conscience are in question. The admittance of Felterman will make him guilty before the court for not conforming to his duty or to the rule of his authority. However is conscience more important than duty

The elegance of a high-class society  elegant balls, splendid outfits, noble men, glamorous women and an affluent life  has always been a popular theme in novels. Most often than not, people are always attracted to this kind of stories as they are being taken into a world where everything seems to be perfect and flawless. However, as Edith Wharton takes readers into this kind of world through her book, The Age of Innocence, it can be realized that indeed, not everything about high-class society is perfect. It appears that beneath this aesthetic perfection, a loveless, emotionless and passionless air actually makes people suffer.

One of the most interesting features in this book is how Wharton was able to bring readers into a world where cultural norms and traditions rule. Due to the perceived brilliance and captivating quality of this story, it has been revived into a film in the year, 1993. And as per the New York Times review of the story, Prose writes,

The book gives us a gaudy opulent world -- high society in the 1870s -- and sweeps us through it in panoramic scenes evenings at the opera, archery contests on Newport lawns, lavish dances and dinners, lovers speeding in carriages through the snowy streets of Old New York. Its tale of lost love and sacrificed happiness is enthralling and finally wrenching, no matter how distant we may feel from the stuffy era in which its set -- an era already 50 years past when Edith Wharton wrote the novel in 1920 so the book was always a period piece and, paradoxically, timeless. (Prose 1)

Most critics and readers tend to agree on the fact that this depiction of the 1870s society is one of the most accurate and stirring. However, the more engaging feature is on how the author displaces the truths about cultures power. In this story, a man falls helpless to the power of culture despite his hearts strong desire on love. Archer -- the main protagonist who also appeared to be a hopeless romantic trapped inside the physique of a high-class society man  is forced to give up on his happiness so as to follow the norms and the rules that his culture has already laid out before him.
Archer and Wellands marriage is characterized by the expectations imposed on them by the society they grew up in. A noble man like Archer has always been expected to marry a classy and a prim lady from an affluent family who has the right upbringing to equate to his aristocracy. Although there was some spark of attraction between them, it was undeniable that the most part of the reason why they are getting married is founded on the expectations of their aristocratic culture. This specific scene evidently describes how it is to be in Archer and Wellands world

Her visitors were startled and fascinated by the foreignness of this arrangement, which recalled scenes in French fiction, and architectural incentives to immorality such as the simple American had never dreamed of. That was how women with lovers lived in the wicked old societies, in apartments with all the rooms on one floor, and all the indecent propinquities that their novels described. (Wharton 23)

This creates a clear and vivid picture of how the society of Archer and Welland seemed like. Their engagement was formed in a culture where family honor, pride and aristocracy command most of their decisions in life. Marriage is just one the things which has been greatly affected by this powerful culture. Interestingly, it also appears like the author had sufficient exposure to such kind of tradition, and this enabled her to portray the fancy, florid and ornate scenes about aristocratic engagements and marriages.

For a lady born into New Yorks upper class in 1862, Edith Wharton is both traditional and unorthodox. She is traditional in the sense that for her heroines marriage  and an advantageous marriage  is at the centre of their lives, and she is unorthodox in the way that she admits to other affinities, secret partnerships that disturb their symmetry. (Wharton and Brookner 2)
Indeed, Whartons familiarization to such kind of culture has become a significant factor in the building up of this theme. As it appears, the author herself has been used to such kind of fancy engagements and marriages that  although how perfect they look  often end up wrecked due to extra-marital affairs.

In this story, Archer was greatly affected by his desire for passion and real romance. Although at some points, he seemed to achieve all these from Welland, Archer could not hide his peculiar attraction to Wellands cousin, Ellen Olenski. At the beginning, this situation actually pushed Archer to work harder on concentrating to his marriage to Welland. At first, it was evident that he was trying his best to protect their engagement since he knew submitting to his desires for Olenski would be one of the most unacceptable actions he could ever make in the eye of their society. At this point, the power and influence of Archers culture can be greatly observed. In this situation, it is evident that Archer is facing some sort of war. And this war was between his belief on the moral standards of his culture and his own emotions and worldly desires. This war within Archers conflicting insights can be considered under the ideal of nature versus culture. This concept of nature versus culture has been a typical subject matter in novels. This concept displaces the fact that there is indeed a conflict between humans innate tendencies and the rules that their culture imposes. This case where Archer was forced to battle his emotions and desires is a clear exemplification of this conflict. If only Archer was free to submit and succumb to his desires, true happiness could have possibly been achieved. However, since Archers belief and compliance to the moral and ethical standards of his culture appeared to be stronger than his will to succumb to his desires, he was bound to sacrifice the happiness he could have had. Evidently, the power of culture in the context of Archers situation appears to be very implicative. It appears like culture creates and places a barricade between an individual and the achievement of his desires. Obviously, being in Archers situation during that time could have been very difficult. He was certain that the being with Ellen Olenski could have given him utmost happiness and content however, he was fixed and bound to follow the rules of the aristocratic society where he belongs. Aside from him, Ellen Olenskis situation appeared very challenging as well. She had to face cruel judgments due to her divorce, as women during her time were expected to submit to their husbands no matter what. But unlike Archer, Olenski has been brave enough to push through with her wanting to break free from her loveless marriage.

Hence, the truth about human nature can never be denied. There are just some things about humans natural tendency to be attracted to another that cannot be fought. The greatest example in this story would be Archers attraction to Olenski despite the nearing marriage he was supposed to submit to. When Archer met Olenski, he suddenly it was apparent that he suddenly became uncertain of the previously sure marriage he was planning to have with Welland.

Newland Archer was too imaginative not to feel that, in his case and Mays the tie might gall for reasons far less gross and palpable. What could he and she really know of each other, since it was his duty, as a decent fellow, to conceal his past from her, and hers, as a marriageable girl, to have no past to conceal What if, for some one of the subtler reasons that would tell both of them, they should tire of each other, misunderstand or irritate each other (Wharton 36)

It is quite apparent that all of sudden, Archer displays a grave case of uncertainty which seems worse than the typical case of a grooms cold feet. Obviously, Olenskis presence had a lot to do with this sudden instinct. However, as what can be observed in Archers contemplation, it is still apparent that the rules and norms laid by the society are still the most important considerations for him. It was undeniable that his attraction to Olenski was that strong but he kept on shrugging it off so as not to ruin the expectations of their society.

Archer was portrayed as a noble member of an aristocratic society. His pride and honor are two valuable things that may differ from the things a commoner would value. It is quite understandable for an aristocrat like Archer to value cultural norms and rules this great. He completely understands that pride and honor are all they have aside from wealth hence, these are two great things he also has to take care of. In this story, it was evident that indeed, culture still holds a considerable influence over peoples decisions every day. Culture founded the rules and norms that people follow. It also created the divisions and hierarchies that identify nobility from commoners. Thus, Archer understood perfectly that his life has already been laid out before him even before he was born into his aristocratic world. In the end, Archer married and had children with Welland. He tried to forget everything about Olenski, but although he failed at doing this, he succeeded in sacrificing his real desires just as not to destroy the honor of his marriage to Welland. Thus, this tale by Wharton  aside from being a real inspiring tale of failed desires  also serves as a reminder that in this world, not all happiness can indeed be achieved when the power of culture and the society reigns over a hearts true desires.