American Literature

During the later part of the ninetieth century and up until 1912, immigration to the United States was a major trend that serves as an important part of both the countrys history and individual histories of those making the moves. Individuals moved to the United States from all over the world, leaving their home countries in favor of better opportunities and a new life. Some were running from something in their home country, whether that was an economic problem or a sociological issue. Others came because of the tremendous opportunities afforded to individuals by the American system. Whatever the case, immigration to America was such a powerful force that it could not be ignored. These historical phenomenon also applies to certain values held in literature at that time. As people moved to America and crossed over important national lines, literature reflected this change. The world became a small place, so literature during that time became more global and inclusive in nature. Additionally, the growing and enduring sense of opportunity and excitement brought about by the American immigration is something that powers much of the literature of that time period. The impact is legitimate and it cannot be ignored, just as any historically significant phenomenon would have an impact on how writers view the world around them.

In literature from that time period, one can not help but notice some seriously significant themes. For one, authors tend to write about certain political issues that pervaded international society at that point in time. These things were mostly religious in nature, as many European nations were undergoing religious political changes as time went along. Especially in the last 1800s, immigration in the United States was powered by people from Ireland, Germany, and other developed European countries. These people were looking to take advantage of one specific part of the American dream. They wanted the freedom from persecution that came along with living in the United States. Books published during this time indicated this struggle for freedom that individuals experienced, and many of those books carried along religious themes of some sort.

Likewise, one must take a hard look at the single defining theme of literature in the last 1800s and early 1900s. Prior to the Civil War, literature had been highly steeped in romanticism, with floral writing being the order of the day. Authors had used archaic comparisons with faulty examples being prevalent. This was true in both fiction and non-fiction works. What this created was a type of literature in America where none of the characters in the book represented anything real in society. After the Civil War, things started to shift, as writers began taking a more realistic approach. All of a sudden, stories began to represent the struggle that people went through on a day to day basis. The American immigration movement was an important part of this. The individuals who made up the immigration base had their own stories and they often struggled to make it. These were highly complicated people who combined human traits like bravery and struggle. While earlier literature may have painted the picture of a perfect life, new literature reflected the things that people like this might have experienced. The focus on realism is an important development for American literature during that time, and it is something that added more depth to the works. One of the most important literary devices in all of American literature was implemented in greater substance during that time. That idea was naturalism, and it highlighted the things that had control over peoples actions and thoughts in an overriding nature. All of a sudden, literary figures were pitted against the larger world and authors began to concede that life presents some grim challenges at times. A host of writers did this, and they all did it in different ways. In Twains The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, for instance, characters are put up against the forces of nature in a symbolic way. Other authors of that time used nature as the overriding force to illustrate just how difficult life was for certain people during that time.

Much in the same way, immigrants to the United States saw an America and a world that was difficult to live in. Almost more than being difficult, the world was a frontier where individuals had to be willing to act and adjust to various changes. Literature during the time presents this world view, and paints the world as much more grim than in previous texts. The romantic texts of the preceding period illustrated a world that was probably unrealistic. It was, instead, a world where individuals were treated fairly and life went ahead with few mix-ups. As characters and immigrants to the United States found out, the struggle to make a better life too often came with some bumps along the way. At the very least, there were twists and turns that had to be navigated. Likewise, this periods literature presents the world as a place where people need the help of other people if they are going to be successful. Immigration in itself is about embracing other cultures and the possibilities presented by others. Authors of that period speak to this fact, as this is a change taking place in the world during that time period.

One thing taking place in the world during that time is a decreased importance placed on nationalism and cultural identity. The United States itself was being reconstructed after a terrible war, and it was shaping its new identity. Though many historians have noted the ways in which the South changed in reconstruction, a major player in the new American identity was the large immigrant population that came through the major Eastern cities. These individuals all brought with them cultures and distinct ideas of what it meant to be free, which helped the country move forward to what it is today. The world was smaller in that regard, and the mixing of different cultures was something that became evident. Though most individuals see race relations as a black and white issue, this time in American history provided many racial situations that were mostly shades of gray. African Americans were being funneled into normal society and they were thrust into the workforce alongside new Irish-Americans. These social dynamics challenged the conceptions of pride and cultural identity that people had long held through most of the nineteenth century. This became something of a geopolitical issue, as well, since different areas around the nation tended to house different immigrant cultures. The struggle to maintain culture identity, while also integrating into a new American life was one of the challenges faced by these individuals, and it was also something that authors chose to write about during that time period.

Authors in the late 1800s seemed to embrace the differences in culture, and many works speak to these differences. They paint characters as being highly unique on the basis of things like language and dialect. Whether talking about a former slave maintaining the broken English that was practiced in the fields or indicating the think Irish tones of a person off of the boat in Ellis Island, literary works of that time portrayed dialect differences as being a part of the cultural challenges faced by new immigrants. Over time, new questions of social status and cultural superiority would persist, but much of the literature reflects the brave new world mentality that came along with American immigration during that time. It was such a large movement and so many different cultures were meshed that almost everyone was from somewhere different. These people came together to form American society, all the while carving out their own little cultural identities in the various cities.

In terms of pure literary technique, the writing of the late 1800s and early 1900s was some straight forward and simple. While it was poetic and floral in the time leading up to the Civil War, new writings got to the point after the war ended. This might have had something to do with the hard-nosed nature of the time period. People coming to the United States via immigration ports were quite obviously tough, and the world became a more practical place. People were going back to work, and the nation was embracing a large amount of industrial spirit. Writing reflected this point, and metaphors became much more literal in all types of writing across the board.

In all, immigration to American was something that brought about huge changes to both the country and to the individuals coming into the nation. The world got smaller, and cultures started to come together. This meshing of cultures is well represented in literature of the time, as are themes like religious persecution and the chase of the American dream. One thing to note is the fact that the world was becoming a more dangerous and a more challenging place. Many authors took the initiative of pitting characters against tough, natural forces, leaving them with hard decisions and difficult choices. This was a very real take on literature, as some characters overcame challenges, while others simply could not. This was something that stood in direct opposition of earlier literature, which featured a more floral, romantic approach to fiction. Overall, authors of this time period seemed to understand the changes going on in the world around them, and they especially seemed to understand the ways in which immigration to America was shifting the countrys cultural and industrial direction for the foreseeable future.

Overview of Topic  Sports Franchises, New Construction, and Greed
Henry David Thoreau, one of Americas most well-known New Englanders, would most probably be disappointed with recent proposals to dismantle Fenway Park in order to construct a more profitable baseball park.  The past two decades have witnessed a pervasive sports trend in which professional sports franchises have sought to maximize revenues by abandoning or tearing down old stadiums in order to construct modern stadiums that incorporate a variety of other income-generating facilities into the larger sports stadium design.  In Toronto, for instance, hotels and department stores have been attached to the baseball stadium in order for the owners of the Toronto Blue Jays to generate more profits through the creation of hotel and shopping markets.  In the Bronx, to take another example, the venerable Yankees of New York made a decision to abandon the mythical park known as Yankees stadium in order to construct a larger and more extravagant baseball stadium right next to the old stadium.  

Many times, the pursuit of greater profits in this respect involves the use of essentially extortionary methods by greedy owners of sports franchises in order to force municipalities to allocate scare tax dollars toward the renovation or construction of sports facilities under a threat that the sports franchise will move to a new city willing to spend tax dollars on their behalf.   The role that greed plays in this trend cannot be denied indeed, with respect to the Red Sox, they have recently broken the curse of the Bambino by finally prevailing in the World Series and consistently sell the majority of their tickets in addition to substantial amounts of merchandise.  It is unquestionable, for instance, that The ballpark was packed with avid fans, as it always is HYPERLINK httpwww.questiaschool.comPM.qstaod5001860344(Dreier 18) and that the Red Sox are one of Americas most recognizable brand names.  Nonetheless, despite an extraordinarily loyal fan base and a baseball park considered one of the most aesthetically pleasing in all of sport, the Red Sox ownership is determined to raze Fenway Park in order to construct a completely new stadium.  The ownerships primary rationale is that the current park, with 33,871 seats (the smallest in the major leagues), is economically obsolete and that they need the additional revenue from luxury boxes, stadium seats, and the other frills of newfangled stadiums in order to compete with teams that have them  HYPERLINK httpwww.questiaschool.comPM.qstaod5001860344(Dreier 18).

Proposals for renovations have been rejected by Red Sox ownership on the grounds that a new stadium is cheaper than renovations.  What emerges from proposals to destroy Fenway Park in order to construct a new stadium is fundamentally a portrait of greed.  Ownership is not satisfied with current profits, even though they have proven more than adequate to compete, and one is left to wonder how much is too much and whether the smaller park might be a critical reason underlying the Red Sox mystique.   Thoreau would likely be highly critical of such proposals and the proffered rational.

Thoreau  Personal Style, Less is More, and Simplicity
Henry David Thoreaus mystique is intimately connected to his highly personalized writing style and his philosophical orientation.  In terms of his writing style, for instance, Thoreau prefers to speak directly to his readers rather than to rely on third person narrative techniques.  To this end, Thoreau rather consistently writes in the first person in a way that creates a type of conversational dialogue between the writer and the reader.  In creating the context of his work Life in the Woods, Thoreau employs this first person conversation style by writing When I wrote the following pagesI lived alone, in the woods, a mile from my neighbor, in a house which I had built myself and further that I earned my labor by the work of my hands alone.  I lived there for two years and two months (n.p.).  In addition to employing a heavily dependent first person type of narrative, Thoreau also relies on personal observations and experiences in order to test and to support his theories and his conclusions.  His is a uniquely hands-on type of narrative in which he derives his insights from personal experiences rather than from hearsay taken from the observations and experiences of other people.  To be sure, Thoreau does at times reference the theories and the works of other people.  He is obviously a well-read writer and he cites proverbs and theories from people as diverse as famous Buddhists, Hindus, and Western writers. All of these outside references, however, are structurally subordinate to his own observations, theoretical premises, and proffered conclusions.  This type of first person narrative gives rise to what is extraordinarily analogous to a type of personal and philosophical quest in which Thoreau appears to be challenging conventional wisdom in several respects.  Thus, in addition to a writing style that is deeply personal, Thoreau also succeeds in allowing the reader to share in his journey or quest.  This is because his writing is richly descriptive in a way that makes it nearly impossible to sever the descriptions of New Englands natural environment from the philosophical and economic assumptions and conclusions that he is simultaneously addressing, considering, and commenting upon.  At the same that he discusses the economics of constructing his house he also describes in excruciating detail the type of natural materials used for the construction and the benefits of understanding the qualities of these raw materials in order to most effectively construct his new home.  Nature, in effect, represents both a source of intellectual illumination and a liberty to live life in a manner than obviates destructive human characteristics such as greed and desperation in the face of perceived deprivations.  He remarks in this respect that  go and come with a strange liberty in Nature, a part of herself (n.p.).  Thoreaus writing style, in sum, is deeply personal and it invites the reader to join his search for meaning in a world in which human existence cannot be severed from nature.

Although he is most well-known as a literary philosopher, a careful review of Thoreaus writing also demonstrates that he comments to a great extant on economics as well.  He basically argues that human beings have made daily life too complicated.  It has become too complicated because people desire things such as fame, money, and extravagance in ways that have no limitation.  There is no final stage of happiness, people always want more, and as a result people are destined to be unhappy because there is no comfortable or moderate level of accomplishment.  He states in this respect that Most menthrough mere ignorance or mistake, are so occupied with the facetious cares and superfluously coarse labours of life that its finer fruits cannot be plucked by them (n.p.).  People therefore need to set modest goals consistent with nature in ways that will result in contentment and moderation.  He characterizes this as a simple approach to life in which happiness is best achieved by avoiding extreme desires.  Desperation, whether in terms of fame or profit, is therefore a destructive and should be avoided.  In addition to being well-known as a philosopher, there is much economic discussion and wisdom in Thoreaus writings.  The fundamental economic theme advocated by Thoreau is that When it comes to economic consumption, less is more HYPERLINK httpwww.questiaschool.comPM.qstaod5037507870(Cafaro 26).  A desperate desire for public acclaim and wealth wastes natural resources and is unnecessary to the attainment of a successful and happy life.  In short, Thoreaus personalized writing style functions as a type of personal appeal for human beings to become happier and more self-sufficient by using resources wisely and by being content with reasonable limits in daily life rather than pursuing ever higher levels of artificial accumulation.

Fenway Park through Thoreaus Eyes
Upon learning of the proposed demolition of Fenway Park, I decided to pack up my backpack with some clothes and camped in the visitors bullpen.  It was my desire to learn whether the players and the fans were happy with the stadium.  I spent afternoons in the parking lot, attending tailgate parties with fans, and evenings in my perch in the bullpen chatting with home and visiting players.  I did not have to purchase tickets, the owners of the Red Sox having invited me to live in the bullpen for a month hoping that I would lend their proposals a vote of confidence after personally witnessing the ostensibly decrepit state of the famed stadium, and I crafted a tent from practice uniforms and baseball bats in the evening to shield me from the chilly climate of Bostons evenings and early mornings.  Shelter and access secure, I turned my attentions to warming my body and found that the natural confines of Boston were more than adequate for purposes of sustenance.  The fans offered hot dogs during games, hamburgers during tailgate parties, and vendors were always kind enough to provide me with care packages on days that the Red Sox played away or had open dates.  I was, in sum, housed and fed and free to engage in my observations of the fans and players in Fenway Park.

Most players and fans seemed genuinely happy and content, subject of course to the scores of individual games, and as I sat in the bullpen I thought I began to understand.  It is true that Fenway Park is an extraordinarily old baseball stadium, that it is not as shiny or polished as other stadiums in the league, and yet there was a natural and pristine quality that seemed in many ways to transcend contemporary baseball.  The morning dew clung to the outfield grasses of green and contributed to the firm natural turf in a way that allowed the outfielders to maintain a firm footing rather than sliding or slipping in pursuit of line drives slapped by hitters into the gaps.  The grass dried in the afternoons and was soft enough to cushion a players fall if diving for a pop-up became necessary.  The grasses of Fenway were both aesthetically pleasing, a part of Bostons natural environment, and friend rather than for players tumbling to the ground.  It occurred to me one early morning that other stadiums had torn up their natural grass and replaced it with Astroturf and other forms of artificial grass.  The motives were fundamentally economic in nature, premised in an accountants calculation that maintenance fees would be cheaper so that profits could be maximized, and the results were disappointing.  These artificial turfs faded in color and peeled.  Fans and players complained.  The sun glared off the turf and blinded fans who had paid good money for tickets.  The smell of the grass was gone and the fields became plastic stages rather than natural turfs.  More, the comforting textures of grass fields torn up, players began to suffer more injuries and more serious types of injuries on artificial turf.

Under the turf, another cost-saving measure, was a concrete and hard-rubber base.  Players suffered ligament tears previously uncommon on grass fields and bones were more frequently broken when players have fallen on the grass.  The turf is unnatural, it is unforgiving, and it does not interact naturally with the human body.  This illustrates the danger of change premised on profit without a due regard being given to other salient factors.  The artificial turf denigrated the visual aesthetic of watching a baseball game in person and led to decreased ticket sales in the same way, increased injuries led to more expensive medical bills and lost playing time that imposed costs far in excess of the initial savings envisioned when the grass was torn out and the artificial turf was installed.   Alterations have consequences and it is difficult to imagine fixing something that is not broken. The grass in Fenway represents the purity of the game and is firmly etched in the minds of all that have visited as fans or played as players at Fenway Park.  Fans and players are satisfied, the quality of the game is intact, and the ownerships preoccupation with profit must be analyzed in light of the downfalls experienced in the case of artificial turf.  There is more to baseball, both as a sport and as entertainment, that size and glamour.  The beauty is in the finer details and the owners would be well-advised to consider the risks of destroying a beautiful thing for profit alone.

It would also be wise to consider the consequences of replacing the lovingly certain with the uncertain.  A peek into the stands demonstrates fans who are committed, loyal, and knowledgeable.  There is a sea of Red Sox colors, families cheering and grimacing, and a uniformity of aspiration that seems difficult if not impossible to attain in outside settings.  These fans are possessed with a common cause, the success of their beloved Red Sox, and this singularness of purpose transcends differences in their individual lives and diverse backgrounds and personalities.  Fenway is a unifying force, it has since its inception been a unifying force for the people of New England generally and Bostonians more specifically, and this unity has been cultivated and reinforced by human fascination by such structures as the Green Monster in left field and such Red Sox heroes as Ted Williams.  One might copy the Green Monster, a short but towering fence in left field, but it would never be the same in a new field.  More, given ownerships perverse fascination with profit, it is plausible that the new left field fence would be lowered to accommodate more seats capable of selling more tickets.  A new park would become standard rather than distinctive and one of the parks major draws would be eliminated.  The same is true with the way in which memories of past heroes would be dished ted Williams batted over .400 while walking and running within the confine of Fenway Park his memory would fade with the demolished park.  Heroes and physical attractions are attached to Fenway park and cannot be duplicated.
 
Finally, there are questions pertaining to audience as a writer, I am well aware of the fact that audiences are truer indicators of fame and reception than profits.  What quality of fan, for instance, shall be attracted to a modern stadium with modern and non-baseball related amenities  Will the common man be priced out of attending Red Sox games in a sport cathedral dedicated to profit rather than community and sport  These are questions worth considering they are worth considering because, in truth, the fame of the Red Sox is dependent on its natural environment.  This natural environment, in turn, includes the history of the franchise, the intimacy that Fenway Park cultivates between fan and franchise, and an audience that is fervently dedicated to the team.  Removing Fenway Park may very well destroy these symbiotic relations and taint the brand value of the Boston Red Sox.  Tearing down Fenway Park for a new stadium is like tearing down the forests for a new housing development.  Nothing will ever be the same.

Edgar Allan Poes short story The Cask of the Amontillado tells a tale of revenge and murder justified for an unidentified insult. The narrator, Montresor, simply states that the insults he has had against him from Fortunato are many, and the he proceeds to tell the reader how he lured Fortunato to his death and buried him alive. Though the story is short and its characters are limited, Poe weaves several themes into it during its short duration. In the relationship between Montresor and Fortunato and the events that take place between them in the catacombs, Poe presents a theme of false friendship and cautions against not knowing who ones real friends and enemies are.

Montresor never identifies his specific reasons for wanting to kill Fortunato. Instead, he begins by saying, The thousand injuries of Fortunato I had borne as best I could but when he ventured upon insult, I vowed revenge (Poe 89). He had put up with Fortunatos offensive attitudes and behaviour long enough, but something pushed him over the edge and he decided to exact revenge against Fortunato. He does so, however, under the guise of friendship. This friendship is clearly false from the beginning, because his vow of revenge begins the story. The one kind thing that Montresor says about Fortunato is the one thing that he feels that they have in common their knowledge of good wine. But instead of using this as a bridge to build a stronger friendship with the man, Montresor uses it to trick him and kill him.

Montresor uses Fortunatos pride in his knowledge of wine against him by mentioning a mutual acquaintance, Luchesi. He tells Fortunato that he has purchased a bottle of Amontillado for the full price and is on his way to consult with Luchesi to see if he has been taken advantage of or if the bottle was worth what he paid. In another example of false friendship and two-faced backstabbing, Fortunato retorts repeatedly that, Luchesi cannot tell Amontillado from Sherry, insinuating that Luchesi doesnt know as much about wine as he does. Fortunatos opinions of Luchesi, who is presented as a mutual acquaintance and fellow wine connoisseur, are similar to Montresors two-faced approach to his friendship with Fortunato and the way that he pretends to be concerned for Fortunatos health and happy to see him and have his company while he confides to the reader how he plans to kill him. Though Luchesi never makes a physical appearance in the story, he functions as a foil for the relationship between the two men in the way that he is also a victim of false friendship and could have just as easily been the victim of someones vengeful desires.

Montresors guise of false friendship is kept up even for the reader, as he calls Fortunato, my friend (Poe 89) and says, I was so pleased to see him, that I thought I should never have done wringing his hand (89). This would seem like a gesture of being genuinely glad to see someone, except that the reader already knows Montresor is plotting revenge against Fortunato, so the gesture seems dangerous instead of friendly. He continues to inquire about Fortunatos health even as he is leading him into the catacombs where he will trap and kill him, insisting, Once more let me implore you to return (Poe 94), asking Fortunato to leave the damp air and pretending to be concerned for his health and safety as he chains him to the brick wall and begins to wall him in.

The point of view of the story is very important during this conversation and throughout the dialogue between the two men. Montresor narrates the story, and as such Fortunatos character and the story is told from only Montresors point of view. He tells it in a detached, emotionless, matter-of-fact tone that illustrates how false his friendship with Fortunato was and how little remorse he feels for killing the man. Even after he has buried Fortunato alive he says, My heart grew sick  on account of the dampness of the catacombs (Poe 95). This statement clearly shows that he feels justified in his actions and feels no remorse for what he has done.

The characterization of Fortunato by Montresor also serves to emphasize this theme. He has lured Fortunato to the catacombs by promising him an elusive bottle of Amontillado wine, yet he repeatedly describes Fortunato as already being drunk and stumbling into walls. A true friend would have expressed concern for his inebriated state and taken him home, but Montresor doesnt even pause in his plan. He gives Fortunato his arm to lean on, but thats only so that he can lead him further towards his death and so that Fortunato cant get away. He also describes Fortunato as being dressed in a silly striped outfit and wearing a hat with bells on it that sounds like a jesters hat, but he tells Fortunato to his face that he looks great. This two-faced approach to friendship is materialistic here when concerning clothes, but Montresors previous statements about Fortunatos slights and insults indicate that Montresors true disdain and resentment for Fortunato run much deeper than making fun of what the man wearing.

Montresor blatantly lies to Fortunato while leading him into the crypt. When they share a drink, he toasts by saying, And I to your long life (Poe 92). He had previously stated, You are a man to be missed (Poe 91). When Fortunato says he is a mason, Montresor says that he is one too and the two men claim brotherhood to one another. He obviously does not mean any of these statements since he is planning to kill Fortunato. These repeated instances of lying and false proclamations of friendship and brotherhood serve to emphasize the ease with which false friendship can be presented as truth and with which it is accepted by those that want to believe in it.

The symbolism of the wine that the men drink during their walk towards Fortunatos fate is symbolic of false friendship. The men are in the catacombs under the premise of sharing a bottle of Amontillado that is rare and priceless. The catacombs are also full of old and valuable wine. Yet Montresor repeatedly opens bottles and gives them to Fortunato to drink as if they were tap water. This illustrates that he has no real appreciation for the value of the wine when weighed against the importance of his own revenge. In this way, the wine can be seen as symbolic of Fortunatos life. Montresor ends Fortunatos life as easily as he drains a bottle of valuable wine. It doesnt matter how valuable it was, because Montresor is using it as his means to an end that will satisfy him.

The state of the bones in the crypt can also be seen as symbolic for Montresors lack of value of friendship. When the two men arrive at the crypt where Montresor plans to bury Fortunato alive, the bones have been removed and scattered on the ground. It can be reasonably assumed that Montresor did this in preparation and anticipation of killing Fortunato. He premeditated other details of the murder, like bringing the trowel, so it is reasonable to think that he also prepared this abandoned section of the catacombs for Fortunatos burial. He shows no concern for the desecration of the crypt, and rebuilds the bones up around Fortunatos tomb after he is done burying the man alive. In these actions, the bones symbolize the personal motivations of revenge that fuel Montresors false friendship.

Montresor ends his retelling of his murdering Fortunato by indicating that it happened fifty years ago. In this statement he is telling the reader that he committed the murder many years ago and still obviously feels no remorse or guilt over the death of Fortunato. There is no reason given for his telling of the story, which further emphasizes that he still feels that he has done nothing wrong or, at the very least, that he feels justified in what he did. This time frame illustrates the repeated cycle in which false friendships can occur. He killed Fortunato over fifty years ago, and who knows what atrocities have been committed in the name of pretended friendship and kindness since then. Poe leaves the reader with the words, In pace requiescat (95), or rest in peace. Fortunato is resting peacefully in death, and Montresor is at ease with an unfettered conscience. Montresors revenge was realized, and he is at peace. Montresors lies, like the fake crypt wall, remain undisturbed. The peaceful ending leaves the reader wondering what the eventual consequence will be, if any, for false friendship and Montresors lies and murderous actions. Poes illustration of the consequences of false friendship ends with the echoes of Fortunatos screams and Montresors admission without guilt, proving the potential dangers of not knowing who your friends really are.

Whitman, Emerson, Crane, and Cummings
Walt Whitman along with other poets and writers have celebrated America just because of its existence and upon celebrating the existence of America, they have created the American ideal toward transcendentalism and experimentation with all elements of life and literature.  This wide realm of possibilities for American poets and writers existed because America was a new country in need of an identity through its art and a philosophy explained through poetry.  Walt Whitman in addition to Ralph Waldo Emerson, E.E. Cummings, and Hart Crane all displayed the innovative spirit of America through influencing each other and adding to the early celebration of American existence via experimentation.  Though it should be noted that Whitman and Emerson, as transcendentalists had the ardent task of creating a space with which to make poetry and essays pleasing enough to evoke an audience.  Crane and Cummings, however emerged as poets who showed that American art was brave enough to encounter even the most idiosyncratic styles of the American existence.  No poets task was easy in a young country, however their legacies all live on and continue to influence American artists to modernity.
 
Ralph Waldo Emerson should be given credit as the first American writer to be both poetic in his essays and to influence other poets and writers to be self reliant and innovative in both American life and art.  In the overview of Nature and Selected Essays, it is said that Ralph Waldo Emerson unburdened his young country of Europes traditional sense of history and showed Americans how to be creators of their own circumstances (Ziff, 2001).  Indeed it was necessary for Americans to develop a sense of their own identities and to free themselves from the constraints of European colonialism.  It is fair to say that Emerson not only wrote essays to influence the philosophy of individuals but he also wrote history as it was occurring.  The same can be said of the poets, who followed Emersons call to create an America that was free and open to new ideas and unique art.

Though Emerson is well known for his extensive essays on nature and the self determination of man, his poems are both metaphorical and musical.  They are inspiring as a call to action for Americans to march to the their own rhythm and pace, where he seems to be an activist of sorts.  The activism that can be seen here is the right for individuals to discard previous conceptions of what makes poetry and prose desirable and to reach out to find new ways of expression.  In Selected Writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson, Emersons essays are presented before his poems giving the reader insight into his wishes for other artists and for America as a whole.  He says, Great is the art, Great be the manners, of the bard.  He shall not his brain encumber With the coil of rhythm and number But, leaving rule and pale forethought, He shall aye climb (2003, 513).  Farther along in Emersons epic-like work he says most profoundly, But mount to paradise By the stairway of surprise (513).  It becomes clear that Emerson champions new and innovative ways in which to live life and to make art.  By doing this he seems to be saying in the previous passages that a poet will succeed if he or she denies convention and utilizes the element of surprise in literary undertakings.

Walt Whitman most certainly answered Emersons call for American innovation in art and developed into one of the most influential poets of the American existence and the transcendence of life to death.  In Whitman Poetry and Prose, Whitman offers his preface to Leaves of Grass as his opinion on the need for Americans to continue to create and discard the influences of Europe in order to be free in life and art.  He says here

No reminiscences may suffice either.  A live nation can always cut a deep mark and can have the best authority the cheapest...namely from its own soul.  This is the sum of the profitable uses of individuals or states and of present actions and grandeur of the subject of poets.-As if it were necessary to trot back generation to generation to the eastern records.

Whitman, too served as an influence and an activist against the crude and unnecessary boastings of American Capitalism and enterprise.  He undertakes his writing as a dismissal of economics and a call for a more natural, social life.  Therefore both he and Emerson supported philosophies that made them more than just poets, they were the voice of the rational way to live without the incumbency of the past or the Capitalist innovations at the present.

Freedom as the cornerstone of America is demonstrated in the freedom of both Whitman and Emersons writing.  Whitman presented himself as the wanderer of the land that is the United States. Though he does not seem aimless in his travels, he seems to be curious in finding every destination and being a part of the fabric of all the people, places, and things around him.  Just as Emerson wrote about nature and the inherent beauty of it, Whitman similarly showed how spiritual transcendentalism could further aid in freedom, by the ability to roam and to ponder as he did.  He says in his poem Song of the Open Road, I think heroic deeds were all conceivd in the open air, and all free poems also, I think I could stop here myself and do miracles. I think whatever I shall meet on the road I shall like, and whoever beholds me shall like me, I think whoever I see must be happy (2004, 141).

Though Whitman here seems to show optimism for his journey, his personality seemed to be reflected as more caged and conflicted with all the conformity he saw no use for.  Therefore Whitman serves as an influence of all that American can see on a geographical landscape, but also all they can be in terms of unique and therefore, happy.

Unfortunately, innovative poet Hart Crane was unhappy with his life and the inability to be openly homosexual in the early twentieth century.  However, his distaste for technology in favor of nature is well in line with Whitman and an obvious influence can be seen in Cranes work.

It is perhaps not an accident that a homosexual presence remains furtively on hand in both poems, in the free-ranging tramps of the River, in the vagabond Whitman of Cape Hatteras. For the great problem that stymied Crane after 1926 had to do with the conflict between his identity as a gay male and his identity as a poet. Numerous unpublished lyrics, most written between 1927 and 1931, attest to the struggle Crane undertook to invent a discourse that would honestly translate aspects of his homosexual experience into poetry.

It is interesting to note that Brunner describes Cranes poetic inventions as part of the homosexual experience, a part of poetry that is largely ignored as a facet of the American experience.  There are chapters and books dedicated to regional voices in specific time periods of American discourse and its ensuing poetry and other art, as well there are collections of African-American and womens voices in poetry, but Crane seems to present as the most innovative from both his idiosyncratic experience of being a homosexual male and to his unique style that reflects an entire, largely ignored subculture.

The identity of the poet as a self-proclaimed American cannot be ignored in the poems of the three writers discussed to this point.  Therefore their works all demonstrated the need for diversity and the result of taking the euphemistic road less traveled.  The result for Crane was more painful, but it seemed a pain lessened by at least Whitmans influence on Cranes journey of self discovery and identity.  As far as influence is concerned, it is interesting that Brain Reed in his book Hart Crane After His Lights says that there is one assumption about early American writers that the lineage goes from Wordsworth-Emerson-Whitman-Stevens-Ashbury (2006,169).  Though American poets certainly did influence one another in their bold call to action for a voice that represented a freedom from feudalism and the European way, voices such as Cranes demonstrated the freedoms that come from experimentation with life and with poetry.  Similarly, Crane proves how soothing the act of writing can be to the American minority, in whichever group he or she falls into.

Cranes poetry shows his influence and his gift.  Though Emerson, Whitman, and Crane all seemed very reactionary in their works, this should not deter away from the uniqueness and beauty of their work.  It has been said of Crane that misery and despair were redeemed through the apprehension of beauty, and in some of his greatest verses he articulated his own quest for redemption. He also believed strongly in the peculiarly naive American Romanticism extending back through Walt Whitman to Ralph Waldo Emerson.

Though romanticism here is viewed as naive and therefore negative, the idea of redemption through poetry is much a part of the American spirit.  One tries to understand his or her place in the world and their identity within it, only to find that the world is such a vast and beautiful place.  It seems that all of these writers saw the limits to their identities as Americans, but no limit to the vast beauty of what could be seen in nature.  As well, all these poets seem to have a burning desire to point out the contradictions of life along with the imbalances of America.  This can be seen in Harts poem To Brooklyn Bridge where he says
How many dawns, chill from his rippling rest
The seagulls wings shall dip and pivot him,
Shedding white rings of tumult, building high
Over the chained bay waters Liberty--
Then, with inviolate curve, forsake our eyes
As apparitional as sails that cross
Some page of figures to be filed away
--Till elevators drop us from our day.

Due to the introduction of more technological advances came not only Harts criticism of the inability of the American lens to include the natural, but this also effected other modernists of the time.  E. E. Cummings was similarly interested in nature and his idiosyncratic experiences in life also helped to forge a new type of poetry via experimentation.

It has been said of Cummings that he was many things, including a pacifist, a social iconoclast, a poet that used harsh satirical verse, as well as the erotic (Lauter, 1994, p. 1421).  Cummings does introduce many more elements of poetry that use no recognizable syntax and most certainly satire to illustrate human nature as opposed to actual nature.  As a survivor of harsh conditions during World War I, Cummings most likely saw the beauty of the ability to be free in this nation while others did not enjoy the bounty of America.  His satire therefore, is reactionary as are all the works of the previous poets.  His eroticism may be an extension and an outlet for the aggression that was felt during his trial for espionage and his unwillingness to conform.  However reactionary, Cummings also holds in common with the other poets, the love of nature and demonstrates a type of catharsis when writing about this topic.

In Anyone Lived in a Pretty How Town he says, children guessed (but only a few and down they forgot as up they grew autumn winter spring summer) that noone loved him more by more (Cummings, 1940, 1429).  Obviously, the style that Cummings uses is very different from the previous poets.  He seems very deliberate in making his audience pause to see that they are missing, much like the people of the town that he speaks of.  It is also evident that he is harshly sarcastic when contrasting people and nature.  While the elements and the seasons change, the people he speaks of in this piece only grow older and do not change or improve their lives.  They seem almost impervious to what is around them and the poem seems to mock this.  As well, Cummings seems to be making a social statement against groups of people, however he seems more lively and loving when talking about erotic encounters with another individual.

What can be woven together from all four poets is the transcendental way in which nature was substituted more often than sacred works or religious figures.  These authors, it can be said, were very constitutional in that they did respect religious freedoms and quite literally the freedom to abandon any religious ideal.  Though it can be said that the United States was founded on the ideals of religious freedom, these men all sought to add to the American identity through their reactive art.  For them nature was the only static quality in an ever-changing world filled with technology and industry and nature, although powerful and unpredictable held a sort of captive beauty to them.  It seems as is these poets felt an urgent need to use their poems as a virtual snapshot of all that was seen through their eyes.  As well, some of the pieces reviewed were very musical while others seemed to read like a political manifesto.

Though it must be said that the lineage of the authors can be argued as to what influence each poet had to one another and to others not even mentioned here.  However the lineage of these men can be paralleled to the lineage of the birth of a nation to the twentieth century.  There was a need for a national identity that was called for by Emerson and, as well a need to preserve the beauty of the changing landscape while simultaneously discarding remnants of Europe and its hold on the American artists.  Though ironically enough when the modernists Cummings and Crane emerged the most innovative works while Emerson and Whitman were considered by some too romantic and naive.  Though if one were to read closely into the poems, themes of social injustice and a demand for equality along with criticism of the American capitalist system can be easily seen. This is certainly not naive.

Along with all of this criticism of the American ignorance toward more existential questions of the purpose of life and more specifically, American life, was also an answer to the questions posed.  These poets all seemed to be working with their own reactive inner dialogues that posed the questions of the purpose of life and found the answers in the beauty of nature as well as in the satisfaction of producing poetry that contained aesthetic value to them and their audience.  The poets certainly held much hope that their audience would serve to be reactive and revolutionary in art and life, as well.  These poets all engaged in trying to shape themselves and America, but also seemed altruistic enough to care for fellow human beings.  Therefore these writers were all in a sense, freedom fighters for all the rights that were implied or written into the history of America.  Sadly, the modernists could not be as innocent and hopeful as their predecessors due to their circumstances, but their contributions to the literary world certainly helped to at the least, give an understanding into the insight of a certain subgroup of people namely homosexuals and pacifists.

Whitman and Emerson, as well, seemed to be content in their label as men tasked with challenging the status quo and demanding self-reliance of those around them and of those they influenced.  Certainly, poetry is not an easy endeavor in terms of acquiring money and status, therefore the ideas of self-reliance and personal freedom had to assist poets such as Crane and Cummings through this philosophy.  The influence on actual poetic styles is debatable, however Whitman, Emerson, and Crane all show similar features in their pieces.  Cummings, on the other hand, presents himself as almost anarchic in his destruction and rebuilding of previous styles of poetry.  Interestingly enough however, the other writers show signs of anarchic thought but not style.  Whitman and Emerson especially were fortunate enough to be the builders of the American poetic framework.  However they had to destroy the European influences, as well as the technological and increasingly bureaucratic nature of American capitalism and consumerism.

For all the criticism toward the naivety of the Romantic poets, their work is far from naive and instead very political as well as philosophical.  What seems more important is the criticism that Whitman and Emerson held toward institutions and remnants of European descent and their effect on America.  Therefore these men had to be extremely intelligent in order to understand the opposition and to work under a unique framework that challenged this.  Though they may even be considered socialists by todays standards, they certainly did champion for social justice and the right to express their concerns through writing.  It can even be added that the two held a political agenda that may have been missed over the din of acknowledged politicians and philosophers.

Though Cummings and Crane were not considered naive, their work has not always been favored as extremely valuable.  As modernists, they had high expectations to move art into a more supposedly realistic vision of a more technological America.  Some critics have shown Crane to be a mere extension of Whitman with only a few added geographical differences, such as with technological features.  Cummings, on the other hand, does not seem to be linked in to the other three poets as much, although he seemed to find comfort and aesthetic value in the natural while simultaneously experimenting with new ways of composing poetry.  All of these pieces from all four writers show the existential wanderings and wonderings of each and to every question posed is an answer.  However, all writers had to break down former systems and the status quo before engaging in their tasks.

In closing, Ralph Waldo Emerson, Walt Whitman, Hart Crane, and E. E. Cummings all helped to destroy previous structures and conceptions that proved to be a hindrance to American art.  Emerson and Whitman can be considered both founding fathers and freedom fighters to both poetry and self reliance.  Cummings and Crane helped to modernize American poetry through the innovative American spirit while still capturing elements of the work of their predecessors.  The lineage of the writers is debatable, though a common thread can be observed in all.  What cannot be debated is the naivety of the Romantic poets, as they carved their names into the American way of forging ahead into the unknown with not only questions, but answers as well.

Reason for Referral
The first clinical interview for Ms. Williams, the patient is young, just 17-years old, a single and white Puritan female who works as a household help or female companion almost throughout her life to other Puritan families. She has no records of formal education. The patient is undergoing psychological evaluation for symptoms of possible borderline personality disorder. This evaluation aims to explain why the patient is exhibiting such conduct that clearly puts the people around her in jeopardy. Her behaviour of outright lying and inflicting emotional and psychological pain to others and even to the point that deaths have occurred due to her malicious intent is an indication that the patient herself is suffering from a disorder for which reasons are to be clarified in this report.

Procedures
Clinical Interview see appendix
Case HistoryBackground Information
22 March 1675 - The patient was born is second eldest to the Williams family. Her family showered attentions more to the eldest since the child is male. She is soon followed by other siblings.

1683  The patient is 8 years old is separated from her family at a young age of 8 years old when the Williams family died of an unknown disease. The uncle is a Reverend in Salem, Massachusetts, who is in need of a companion for his daughter.

January 1685  The patient is 10 years old gets into a verbal fight with other boys in the town as she is smirked and chided as being worth nothing but to be a slave girl. Possible beginning for the patient to develop inferiority complex about her physical features and sexuality.

April 1685- The patient is found of bullying other Puritan little girls in her community. She is reprimanded and punished by her uncle as he finds out that a neighbours dog is found to be dead after the neighbours daughter gets into a fight with the patient. The reverend locks her up in the attic for two days without supper.

December 1686  The patient is 11 years old she becomes a leader of some sort for the towns female bullies who targets on pretty girls and young boys.

1689  The patient is 14 years old sent to be employed with John Proctor and his wife who have no children.

August 1689 - The patient is 14 years old realizes she is physically attracted to John Proctor. She follows his wife willingly but scorns him for developing such feelings for him. She ignores Mr. Proctor.

17 September 1689  The patient is 14 years old gets into an argument with Mr. Proctor over her bad manners. Mr. Proctor threatens that he will fire her if she continues with her ill manners.

02 February 1690  Elizabeth Proctor leaves the house to visit her relatives in the next town.

03 February 1690 - The patient and Mr. Proctor are left behind. The patient suffers from sexual advances made by Mr. Proctor. In the end, Mr Proctor avoids her after the advances.

05 February 1690  The patient suffers from nervousness over the incident with Mr. Proctor she confronts him over what happened and he admits that he likes her. Mr. Proctor and the patient sleep together for the first time.

February 1690  July 1691  The patient when she was 15 to 16 years old, continues with her sexual affair with Mr. Proctor. On July, they were discovered by Mrs. Proctor and the wife ridicules her by throwing words such as soiled hypocrite an unwanted whore and Satans bitch to her. She is driven from the Proctor home and sent back to her uncle.

July 1691  May 1692- Rumours circulate that the patient is soiled meaning is not a virgin anymore as Mrs. Proctor refuses to attend their Parish since some people there are actually sinned. The patient exhibits more negative and unruly behaviour with foul language and extreme bullying on young girls and yet manages to earn the good graces of the townsfolk with her impeccable behaviour.
18 June 1692  The patient and other girls from the town goes into the forest to perform a ritual to kill off Mrs. Proctor for ruining the patients character.

19 June 1692  Girls who are known to be within the patients circle suddenly falls sick. The reverends daughter, Betty Parris, is the most severe case as she gets extremely sick.

21 June 1692  The patient spreads stories that people in their town are doing witchcraft. This ensues chaos in the entire town as person after person gets accused, thrown into trial and imprisoned.  

24 June 1692  Twelve townsfolk gets hanged after being proven guilty of witchcraft. Five others remain on trial including Mr. Proctor and his wife.

25 June 1692  The entire town awaits the proceedings as one of the most reputable man, Mr. Proctor is accused of witchcraft by the patient. His wife is also imprisoned and on trial.

28 June 1692  Mr. Proctor goes on trial for witchcraft. He denies this and instead admits to his affair with the patient. The patient denies this even when one of the girls, Mary Warren admits to making up the whole fiasco with the witches and rituals. The patients uncle, suggests that she undergoes clinical treatment and evaluation to help her resolve her issues.

Behavioural Observations
The patient is pale, wan and yet physically attractive. Although there are deep circles around her eyes and a haunted look in them, there is a strong determination set in her jaw as if she is set against something or someone. She does not fidget or even looks anxious. She is confident and strong in her element. However, the patient looks withdrawn from her surroundings and even angry as she frowns momentarily over the objects around the interview room. She is controlled in her expressions and actions, sometimes, even too controlled. The patient also manifests contradicting sides during the interviewshe would be very docile and sweet and then vehement and violent in her choice of words and expression of them.

The patient also obviously looks down on the people in her community most especially those belonging to the Parish and of men. This must arise from the fact that she has suffered tremendously in mens hands or that her expectations about the Parish is not met. She has high confidence in herself and thinks of herself as a person of great importance to the point that she has no sense of affinity with her family members, girls her age and her friends. The patients mood shifts tremendously with the topic of the interview from being very whimsical with the subject of Mr. Proctor and then very vehement with the subject of Mrs. Proctor.

Diagnosis
The patient suffers from a psychiatric disorder, specifically on the borderline personality disorder as she seeks to have dual personalities in front of the majority of the town and to that of the people who knows her affair with Mr. Proctor. Her malicious intentions of spreading lies would have been on the normal on the average scale of people who have suffered loss of a loved one, but the involvement of twelve lives would prove the severity of her alarming character. The fact that the patient does not feel any remorse, sadness or grief over the conclusion of her affair with Mr. Proctor is an indication that she may have extreme emotions bottled up inside of her. Moreover, her inability to nonchalantly accuse other people to save her reputation, even if lives are already at stake, is evidence that she has issues with emotional control.

According to Heffner, borderline personality disorders would have the symptoms of unstable relationships with other people, inconsistent moods, and significant impulsivity which the patient so clearly all has. Although the patient does not have tendencies of inflicting harm to herself, she has great tendencies of inflicting great harm to other people by means of physically eliminating them.

Treatment Plan
According to Heffner, treatment is long term and has to be a continuous process both for the patient and for therapist who specializes in treating such disorders. The symptoms for this disorder have been present for a long time as with the case of the patient, already starting with her childhood and had a increase of bottled up emotions with her that eventually lead to the outburst of her emotions. Heffner further suggests the following treatment plan

Insight oriented therapy can be helpful but research is showing an increased support for a cognitive-behavioural approach.  In other words, the individuals thoughts and actions are monitored both by the self and therapist and specific behaviours are counted and a plan is made to gradually reduce those thoughts and behaviours that are seen as negative.

But Westenberg presents a different case as the patients disorder can also be diagnosed as being an obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) that stems from her ability to have such persistent, often irrational, and seemingly uncontrollable thoughts (Heffner). Westenberg states that obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a chronic psychiatric disorder characterized by recurrent persistent thoughts (obsessions) andor repetitive compulsory behaviours (compulsions). If Westenberg is correct in this, then it means that medical treatment can be done in this particular patients case.

Prognosis
This will depend on the patients ability to admit that she has a disorder and that she needs to be treated

Appendix
Q Whats your name and how did you get it
Patient (P) My name is Abigail Williams. I think my momma gave it to me. I dont really know.

Q How many are in your family What number are you
P Were about 6 but I live with my uncle. I am second to oldest.

Q If you could be an animal, what would you be, and why
P I wanna be swan, something beautiful. What are beautiful animals Mermaids are animals too right If thats an animal, I want to be a mermaid.

Q If you could travel anywhere in the world, where would you go
P Somewhere I can be away from my uncle and the people here. I dont want to Puritan no more. People here are too fake. They really do things but pretend theyre all do gooders.

Q What do you most like to do for fun
P I like going to the forest with them other girls. Also, I like going out with boys. I mean, I am girl. Thats normal right Of course I want to be with em boys. Well, actually, I just like one boy. Know John Yeah, I like that boy. Well, he isnt a boy exactly. Hes a man. Well, a married man exactly. See what I mean about people here being hypocrites They think that man is good but hes sinned as the devil himself.

Q In one word, what is the most important thing to you and why
P Myself. Who wouldnt consider herself important Do you think youre not important to yourself

Q Who was the most influential personpeople in your life and what did you learn from them
P My uncle is a good person, he raised me well and good. But that man I was talking aboutJohn He made me feel special. He made me feel like I am not just a black slave made to be ordered around. Know his wife That bitch isnt fit for him. If he wants her then why would he be with me That bitch should die along with those other witches. Shes like thata bitch witch.

Q If I were to walk into the place where you live, what would I see hanging on the walls, placed on the tables, or shelves
P I dont have any place on my own, what you talking about I live with my uncle or whoever wants to hire me. I used to work with the Proctors but they fired me because of Johns bitch of a wife.

Virginia Woolfs Mrs. Dalloway has been rewritten a number of times and in 1999, Michael Cunningham has once again revisited the novel and has written The Hours where he traces a single day in the lives of three women. Interestingly Cunningham has fictionalized Virginia Woolf, the writer apart from the two other characters Clarrisa Vaughan and Laura Brown. The Hours is homage to Virginia Woolf and the two female characters namely Clarrisa Dalloway of Virginia Woolfs Mrs. Dalloway and Clarissa Vaugham of The Hours pose a number of similarities and dissimilarities and this essay delves into the commonalities and contradictions of these two characters.

Young states, The relationship between The Hours and Mrs. Dalloway is impossible to simplify Cunningham interweaves aspects of Woolfs life, her novel, and her theories (38). WWoolf and Cunningham describe the life a woman called Clarrisa on a single day in June. Both these women are hosting a party and have come out to buy flowers. They happen to get a glimpse of a celebrity near the florist. Their spouses, being invited by some famous personality, have gone out to dine without taking their wives. On their way home both meet an old friend accidently. But the two women belong to entirely different background and time period. While Mrs. Clarrisa Dalloway lives in 1923 London, Mrs. Clarrisa Vaugham lives in the modern day New York. Woolf represents the modernist society of 1920s in her novel, whereas Cunningham depicts the contemporary life style in The Hours.

The protagonist of The Hours Clarrisa Vaugham shares her first name with Woolfs Clarrisa Dalloway. Though the characterization of Clarrisa Vaugham is different from Mrs. Dalloway, the similarity in the first names does cause some ripples. But the names of other characters are not the same. For instance, in Mrs. Dalloway Clarrisas husband is Richard but Clarrisa Vaughams husband is not Richard. Sally is an important character who appears in both the fictions. While her relationship with Woolfs Clarrisa is latent, Cunninghams Clarrisa maintains a long-term lesbian relationship with Sally. Critics argue that Virginia Woolf is inclined towards homosexuality and therefore her Clarissa Dalloway expresses her secret homosexual interest in the novel. Further Cunningham himself being a gay writer, has penned down his own experiences in the world through Clarrisa Vaughams lesbian relationship with Sally. Virginias society treated homosexuality as unnatural and perverted and therefore she did not write about it overtly.

Loneliness is common to both Clarrisas. When Clarrisa Vaugham is invited for the party which her husband attends, she is utterly frustrated and states, I am trivial, endlessly trivial (94). Similarly, Clarrisa Dalloway is depressed when she comes to know that Lady Bruton has not extended an invitation to her. Both these women represent the triviality of life. Both these women play the role of hostess to perfection and are interested in throwing parties that Peter Walsh remarks that Clarrisa is capable of only hosting parties and taking care of the household chores. Their lives are not essentially significant but they continue to live in the society.

Clarrisa Dalloway and Clarrisa Vaugham are fascinated towards the ordinariness of everyday life. Cunninghams Clarrisa does not have the quest to achieve lofty goals in life. She simply enjoys without reason the houses, the church, the man and the dog. Its childish, she knows. It lacks edge (12). Both Clarrisas are mature enough to understand that both ordinary and extraordinary are part of the world and have developed a fondness of an ordinary day in life.

Clarrisas not only live with triviality and ordinariness but also with dissatisfaction towards life in general. The hollowness of human life and the masks worn by people to retain their false identity in the society is reflected through both the women characters and it is considered as a failure when the incidents around them do not take place as per heir plan and schedule. While Clarrisa emphasizes on winning the literary prize, none is bothered to listen to her. But she treats it as a precious possession which should be well-guarded and does not take into account of how the rest of the world views it. But in spite of the dissatisfactions and failures, they continue to live with a hope and cherish the same hope throughout their life as they believe that such dissatisfactions and darkness reflect the true inner joy of life and society as a whole.

The attitude of both the Clarrisas towards fame is almost similar. Clarrisa Vaugham during her shopping at the florists, she wishes to guess the celebrity and with a child-like enthusiasm she waits for her appearance as she believes that movie actors represent eternity. Cunningham states, Clarrisa stands guiltily, holding her flowers, hoping the star will show herself again, embarrassed by her own interest (50). Clarrisa Dalloway is also inquisitive about the celebrity and by seeing the car she guesses the name of the actor.

The communication between the characters is essentially strong in Cunninghams fiction. The characters for instance could discuss about homosexuality openly while some degree of discretion and secrecy has been maintained in Woolfs version. Clarrisa and Sally for instance are always generous with kisses (89) though they do not express their love verbally. Sally sends Clarrisa roses to expresses her love similar to Richard who also is not able to express his love verbally. Clarrisa Vaugham also fails to express her love for her daughter Julia and is scared that she might lose her to someone. Similarly Mrs. Clarrisa Dalloway is also afraid that she might lose her daughter and that insecurity turns into hatred towards Miss Kilman, the tutor of Julia. In Virginia Woolfs novel, Elizabeth, daughter of Clarrisa Dalloway loathes the easy way of living of her mother and attaches herself with the feminist Doris Kilman. On the other hand, Julia, Clarrisa Vaughams daughter is in love with a New York lesbian by the name Mary Krull who is much older to her. Since Miss Kilman and Ms. Mary Krull are non-conformists who challenge the restrictions imposed upon them by the society, both Clarrisa treat them as adversaries.

On the whole, the niceties of Clarrisa Dalloways Bloomsbury style are completely out of way and Clarrisa Vaugham adopts the rigorous New York way of living. Cunninghams Clarrisa is fiercely independent and looks into the future than the past. Happer states that Woolfs Clarrisa looks for the meaning of life primarily in the past (112-113). Clarrisa Vaugham has no dominant male in her life and in a way, it is remarked that the Cunningham has successfully helped Clarrisa to evolve and overcome the oppression that Woolfs Clarrisa suffered from. Woolf has primarily focused on Mrs. Dalloways life. But Cunningham has extended the boundary and expressed the fact that love and hope are common to everyone in the society.

To conclude the two women characters Woolfs Clarrisa Dalloway and Cunninghams Clarrisa Vaugham exercise a number of similarities as well as differences. Cunninghams Clarrisa is seen as an evolution of Woolfs Clarrisa as she not only has imbibed the qualities of Mrs. Dalloway but also enriched the same and is appreciated for the fierce independence along with love and compassion for others.

Fiction, like poetry is often posed with the challenge of conveying, not only the story to the readers, but most especially the emotions of the writer such is achieved by expert used of the various elements of fiction.  One of the elements that is effective in conveying emotions is symbolism.  Symbolism is used in a story or a piece of fiction to express subliminal messages or emotions.  In other words, it is used to convey emotions that are not directly referred to in the text of the story.  In John Steinbecks The Chrysanthemums symbolism is used to convey the theme of dissatisfaction and express the implicit emotions of Elisa, the protagonist in the story.

Steinbecks tale begins with Elisa working on her flower garden which contains a crop of Chrysanthemums.  Later, Eliza is visited by a travelling handyman who insists that he be allowed to fix the damaged pots and pans of Eliza for a fee.  Naturally, because Eliza considers the handyman a stranger she initially refuses the offer but later, as they begin to have more intimate conversations with the chrysanthemums as the backdrop the unlikely pair develops a liking for each other which is discreetly referred to in the symbols.  When the handyman leaves, Eliza is left with more thoughts of insufficiency about her married life which is again, implicitly suggested.

The Chrysanthemums leads one to to reexamine not only ones interpretation of Elisa and women but also the process of interpretation itself.(George, 2005)  This basically means that the story is told in various layers of meaning which are due wholly to the use of symbolism to convey the theme of dissatisfaction and domestic insufficiency.  For instance, early in the story, one has the lines, Some of those yellow chrysanthemums you had this year were ten inches across. I wish youd work out in the orchard and raise some apples that big. (Steinbeck, 1938) which is the comment given by Elizas husband to her tending to her flower garden.  In this line one sees that the husband expresses his discontent for what his wife is doing.  The line serves a symbol that reveals a contrast in the flower garden, which is suggested to be useless, and the apple orchard which will produce fruit as opposed to flowers that are not as useful as flowers in these lines one finds the implied discontent of Elizas husband for what she is doing.  Other than this, because Eliza continues to tend her flowers, she also expresses an unspoken reaction to how her husband felt, in the lines, Her eyes sharpened.Maybe I could do it, too. (Steinbeck, 1938)  Here one sees how Eliza does not fully submit to her husbands and shows how she feels distastefully for the comment.  She uses the word maybe to refer to her planned course of action to the request of her husband to show that she is not a hundred percent sold out with the idea.  Other than this, the garden here is also used as a symbol to represent the differences between the couple while one is happy with flowers, the other is not as well as the projection of Eliza of her husbands insufficiency on something that makes her happy.   This symbolism is further deepened when Eliza describes the scent of the flowers in the line, Its a good bitter smell, she retorted, not nasty at all. (Steinbeck, 1938)  Here, she expresses how she contends with something that is actually unpleasant, but because she has no other choice she is left to just accept what she has hence the use of the phrase, good bitter, quite like bitter-sweet.  Here Eliza makes a discreet reference to her married life.

Steinbeck also uses symbolism to reveal the emotions of the protagonist in his story.  The objective style insures the ambiguity of Elisas character and helps to make The Chrysanthemums one of Steinbecks finest short stories. (George, 2005)  In effect, the apparent indifference of Elisa when describing the flowers in her garden reveal so much of how she feels, not only towards her husband but also toward the travelling handyman whom he had spoken to while tending her garden.  Elisas dissatisfaction over her married life is symbolically suggested in the lines, Well, I can only tell you what it feels like. Its when youre picking off the buds you dont want.  (Steinbeck, 1938) Elisa reveals in these lines, through the buds as symbolism, that there are elements in her life that she would much rather pick off and throw away.  The act of picking off the undesirable buds could be likened to being critical about ones life and selecting only the elements or aspects that are bound to give one happiness.  So like her life, the flowers are not all beautiful and useful because some have to be picked off of the lot otherwise all of it goes bad.  Obviously, while there is no direct reference here to her own life, the contemplative approach of Elisa to this particular line suggests that although she is talking about the flowers she is actually referring to something else.  The symbolism deepens when Elisa begins to talk more about how to cultivate the flowers, in the story she says, You can feel it. When youre like that you cant do anything wrong. Do you see that Can you understand that (Steinbeck, 1938)  In the way that these lines are delivered in the story Elisa, while referring to planters hands, actually offers a glimpse into her own regret for being with her husband.  By saying that nothing can go wrong Elisa implicitly suggest that something in fact went wrong.  So, one sees in these lines that the garden and the flower symbolism is given an additional layer as she speaks about the process of gardening and how the gardeners hands can in fact determine how the garden will turn out in the end.  In addition, this line also shows Elisas admission of the act that had put her in this state by seemingly trying to justify the act by verbalizing her expertise in tending the flower garden.  In these lines Steinbeck effectively goes deeper into the psyche of the protagonist and presents this as an open book to the reader, however, the use of symbols allows other layers of interpretation other than just the interpretation that is obvious in the story.  So, what this does is it creates another facet in the story itself, which, at first reading, is just a plain conversation between a stranger and a garden tender.  The garden is used as an effective backdrop for other symbols to emerge in the story and for the audience to read more meanings mostly into the dialogue as well as the garden imagery.

Steinbeck often spoke of his works as having several layers of meaning and he carefully suggested those layers through patterns of implication. (Steinbeck and Timmerman, 1995)  This meant that while most of Steinbecks stories were mum and quite contemplative, reading through these stories would allow one to critically analyze how the author used symbols to present a whole new reading dimension of his pieces.  In The Chrysanthemums Steinbeck achieves his objective of using symbols as a tool to convey the theme of the story to the audience very discreetly as well as make the character of Eliza more accessible to readers by allowing the audience access into her deepest emotions.  Steinbeck achieves this not only by using symbols as representations but as gateways into deeper domains which are not directly stated in the tale.

Rutherford Calhoun, a freed slave finds himself in the middle of the complicated sociopolitical conflict within the ship, Republic. Because of his many affiliations, being a Black American, a former slave and part of the ships crew as the assistant of Sqibb, the ships cook, he has formed unlikely alliances and connections with the people in ship. Calhoun, being a former slave, is closely associated with the African slaves that the ship has illegally picked up to sell to the American society although being educated he has a certain affiliation with the free men in the ship, especially as he is working as part of the ships crew. His experience in the ship also made him value his affiliation to the American society, being able to become free himself.

Affiliations are connections and relations to the people, but not necessarily blood relations. Affiliations are the common characteristics, values and norms that paves way for people to understand each other. This is how Calhoun was able to identify with the different affiliations he had within the ship. He has various affiliations as, one way or another, he is connected with other people through experience, values and race. This is an important aspect of gaining trust from other people. Trust, therefore, is given to someone an individuals believe that will understand, support and not judge his decisions and perspectives in a point of view that is different from ones own. It is earned by someone who is able to show that he can relate to the person without betraying him. Affiliation is a big part of trust as affiliation shows that one is connected to the other and there is a certain value in that connection.

Calhoun was able to gain the trust of the different groups within the ship because of his affiliation with them. Knowing the background and the connection that he has with a certain individual allows him to activate his affiliation, using it to further establishing connection, communication and, eventually, trust. Calhouns position as the middle man between the different groups in conflict within the ship shows that he was able to come to that position because of his many affiliations, allowing himself to move between, inside and out of the groups, with those groups believing that Calhoun is on their side because of his affiliation with them.

Calhoun, then, represents dualism and conflict as Falcon explains that dualism is a bloody structure of the mind (Johnson, p.98). Calhoun is caught between the different cultures, which incidentally shaped his personality. This indicates that affiliation greatly influences ones identity and beliefs. Ones identity is shaped by blood affiliation with different cultures. Shared meanings and values are passed on from one culture to another, comprising an individuals origins. One has no one origin, as an individual is a mix of everyone else. As such, Calhoun was seen by his fellow crew members as the one who will go his own way, like hes always done, believin in nothin, belongin to nobody, driftin here and there and dyin (Johnson, p.88). This emphasizes that although Calhoun has relations with everyone in the ship, he does not belong to anyone as he has multiple affiliations unlike the other crew members who are white, believing that they are the ones that are true Americans.

Having different affiliations makes it both easy and hard for someone to gain trust from another individual or a group. Easy because it creates a connection between individuals and hard because the other person knows that you are also affiliated with the other side of the group. Knowing who one is talking to, he will be able to determine what affiliation to emphasize, thus, allowing him to gain trust and confidence from the individual he is relating to.

The concept of color in America has long been a polarizing issue, not only politically but individually in helping Americans understand our national and social identities. From the long history of racial subjugation and degradation, founded by the slave trade and continued long after slavery had been abolished, to present day America where we try to attain colorblindness but have still not lost the awareness of racial differences, color has continued to be an important foundation for how we define ourselves. It would be incorrect to assume that simply because color is still part of our social and political awareness that it has not changed in the century and a half since the abolition of slavery or the civil rights movement of the 1960s. The color lines have doubtlessly been blurred as Americas collective attitudes have changed to embrace a broader view of our relationship to humanity. However, the idea of color is still present and as a concept acts equally as burden and liberator, in Americas desire to paradoxically ignore but value racial differences. We cannot ignore it, being so deeply ingrained in our political and social history but nor can we use it as the political and social litmus tests of old that based its rules of inclusionexclusion upon the color of ones skin.

Americas idea of color has been created from a combination of factors, including legal and political edicts and restrictions, social definitions and revolutions, but the one that persists in our minds is something that is impossible to put our finger directly upon. While slavery helped to propagate the idea of color as a dividing barrier, when slavery ended the awareness of differences in color did not. When slavery ended the African Americans who became free and parts of the larger American society were still kept out of the American dream. Its no wonder, given the predominance of lynch mobs and Jim Crow laws to keep black separate from whites in the South that any feelings of being integrated into the larger perspectives of America was paltry at best. In 1964, Malcolm X noted, Im one of the 22 million black people who are the victims of Americanism. One of the 22 million black people who are the victims of democracy, nothing but disguised hypocrisy. Its this feeling of victimization that prevails even today within Americas national and individual concept of color the psychological damage remains because we cannot erase the damages of over a century of institutionalized racism. Lorna Dee Cervantes expresses a similar sentiment in her poem, Every day I am deluged with remindersthat this is not my land and this is my land (ll. 52-54). Constitutionally part of America, they were still excluded on the basis of legal and social rules and ideals.

Even now, as we try to approach the world with a view toward equality, the awareness of color is still persistent. However, it is now from a different perspective. Whereas black skin was seen as reason for exclusion in the 19th and early 20th centuries, by the late 20th century political and social changes fought for by civil rights leaders, Malcolm X included, made inclusion a reality of color. Such things as the Equal Rights Amendment and Affirmative Action have created a legal framework for addressing the issue of color. However, as Malcolm X noted in his speech, How can you thank a man for giving you whats already yours How then can you thank him for giving you only part of whats already yours As American citizens, freed by the actions of President Lincoln, they remained enslaved to a social and political pandering of individual politicians and groups, showing how deeply the slave-owner mentality had penetrated into the fabric of Americas identity. When such views were overcome and political equality became more a reality, the concept of color still remains. Even laws such as Affirmative Action, which were created to help provide equality, have been met with contention because of the need of such a law to see and value color in order to work effectively. Is this wrong Not entirely, because while we may legally and politically be colorblind, the reality is much different and there continues to be racism.

In this country we cannot escape color. America is a country where, in fact, we value its contribution to who we are as individuals and how we relate to the world around us, where we take pride in our color and its associations to history and broad political or social accomplishments we must embrace it without allowing it to divide us. Color in America is a racial Catch-22 that has no solution in our present views. As long as we value color as part of a persons identity, we allow the door to stand open for the devaluation of this same person based upon their racial identity. Without an awareness of difference and without the social and political stain placed upon color by our forbearers as an excuse for slavery, Jim Crow laws would never have existed and the integration of society would have been a much smoother process. In the same instance, when we close the door to racial difference, we will also be closing the door on a part of American history that while horrific, nevertheless, shows both the hypocrisy and beauty of the American dream. Americans, regardless of their color, understand the world, in part, based on how color relates us to the world. Politically and socially polarizing, color is nevertheless important to who we are and perhaps most important to who we can, as a country become.

The nineteenth century was marked with the growing womens dissent over their position in the patriarchal society. Women no longer wanted to tolerate the pressure of the patriarchal norms and wanted equality and freedom of self-realization. Literature became an excellent means for women to express their social disagreement. Charlotte Perkins Gilmans The Yellow Wallpaper describes how women rebelled against their patriarchal imprisonment. The Yellow Wallpaper discusses, evaluates, and expresses negative implications of the continuous opposition between a woman and the rest of the patriarchal world. In her story, Gilmans reflects upon the complex connection between a womans insanity and her conflict with the realities of the patriarchal life. In Gilmans The Yellow Wallpaper, the female characters visible insanity is nothing but a rebellion against the stifling conventions of her society, as well as the reflection of her continuous striving to break the dichotomy between a Victorian woman and the rest of the world.

In the nineteenth century, the society expected women to maintain the domestic sphere (Quawas 35). Women had to be a pure haven for their husbands every evening they returned from work (Quawas 35). Only women who exemplified patriarchal submissiveness and domesticity were believed to be happy and contented with their life at home (Dock 53). However, a woman is not always what society wants her to be sometimes, a woman will try to rebel against the stifling conditions of her patriarchal life Personally, I believe that congenial work, with excitement and change, would do me good (Gilman). The narrators ideas about her life, her work, and self-realization go against the basic patriarchal ideas about womanhood. Victorian womanhood comprised the four essential elements a dichotomy between home and the rest of the world, the designation of home as the womans only proper sphere, the moral superiority of women, and the idealization of motherhood and functions of wife (Quawas 36). As a Victorian woman, Gilmans narrator lives (or, rather, exists) in a small world of her bedroom, waiting for her husband to come and decide upon her future. The woman does not like her room and wants another one downstairs that opened on the piazza and had roses all over the window (Gilman), but she cannot go against her husbands decisions. This room and the yellow wallpaper gradually lead the woman to the state, in which resembles an insane woman. In reality, however, her insanity is just a reflection of the conscious rebellion against the stifling conventions of her life.

The young woman rebels against her relations with John her husband, the bright example of the utmost love and care, is a person absolutely indifferent to his wifes inner anxieties. His love and care border on tyranny and discrimination, which the young narrator finds difficult to tolerate He is very careful and loving. And hardly lets me stir without special direction. I have a schedule prescription for each hour in the day he takes all care from me, and so I feel basely ungrateful not to value it more (Gilman). Care is not the only thing John takes from his wife he does not let the narrator use her rights and privileges. Instead, he deems necessary to close the woman in a yellow papered room without any chance for an escape. John applies to Neuropathy to justify his intentions, and his medical degree makes his arguments even more convincing. Delashmit compares Gilmans John to Brontes John Reed from Jane Eyre  both men are equally caring and authoritative (32). Gilmans John, according to Delashmit, uses his medical knowledge to create an impression of an infallible professional correctness and the young woman, due to the lack of appropriate education, can hardly oppose to it (32). Her insanity is no more insane than the patriarchal norms she is bound to follow. This insanity is a form of rebelling against the stifling conditions of her patriarchal existence. She cannot work. She is physically and morally imprisoned. She dreams of jumping out of the window, but the bars are too strong even to try (Gilman). The room on the second floor of a remote gothic house becomes her insanity ward she is torn between the standards of her family life and her own standards of self-realization.

Gilmans female narrator wants to erase the existing dichotomy between her and the rest of the world. She rebels against the norms of the patriarchal society, which associate women with domesticity and motherhood and treat them as childlike and incapable of taking adult decisions Then he took me in his arms and called me a blessed little goose and said he would go down to the cellar, if I wished, and have it whitewashed into the bargain (Gilman). The narrators husband is doing everything possible and impossible to close his wife from the outside reality. That reality and the real world can harm her health and nervous stability is a good justification of his patriarchal intentions. Meanwhile, the woman imagines herself far outside the domestic circles (Golden 80). The conflict between her and the outside world becomes even more complex and problematic, when the reader understands that the woman is not insane at all. Her thoughts are reasonable and well-formed, and her arguments are well-crafted I it so discouraging not to have any advice and companionship about my work. When I get really well, John says we will ask Cousin Henry and Julia down for a long visit but he says he would as soon put fireworks in my pillow-case as to let me have those stimulating people about now (Gilman). In the dichotomy between the woman and the world, the former is secondary to everything else. She does not have power necessary to invite her relatives and family members and to see them.

The world interprets every attempt to express her dissent as the sign of her mental sickness that is why she must take medicines  another patriarchal convention to follow. The narrator wants to erase the existing woman-world dichotomy in which any sign of rebellion is considered as hysteria, neuropathy, and requires medical treatment and isolation from the rest of society. This visible insanity is the reflection of the double standards, which tear the woman between her inner world and her society and do not leave her a single chance to protect her rights and to realize her strivings.

The yellow wallpaper is the turning point in the understanding of this moral and spiritual rebellion. The yellow wallpaper is the direct reflection of the womans inner fears and anxieties it is the mirror of her female spirit and soul. I never saw so much expression in an inanimate thing before, and we all know how much expression they have I used to lie awake as a child and get more entertainment and terror out of blank walls and plain furniture than most children could find in a toy store (Gilman).

Through the yellow wallpaper, the narrator associates herself with an inanimate object, while the rest of the patriarchal society seems unaware of how much expression she hides within herself. In the second half of the story, while looking at the yellow wallpaper, the female narrator suddenly sees a woman behind the bars. This is where she finally understands that she must free the shadow of the wallpaper woman from her imprisonment (Quawas 47), but is there any opportunity to help her realize her strivings These are the realization of her weakness and her inability to change the conditions of her life that result in the state close to that of insanity. When the woman rebels against her husband, she also rebels against the rest of her society. Knight is correct, saying that the womans anger is the basic driver of her desperate actions. The conditions she lives in are worse than those in a madhouse the faceless gaze of her husband and the rest of society finally throw her into madness (Bak 42). This madness, however, is not madness in usual terms. Rather, it is the womans expression of the dissent with the dominant conditions of her life. Her insanity is nothing but a rebellion against the stifling patriarchal conventions, as well as the reflection of her continuous striving to break the tragic dichotomy between her and the rest of the world.

Conclusion
Gilmans The Yellow Wallpaper was written at times when an ideal woman had to exemplify motherhood and her commitment to home and her husband. A Victorian woman had to display submissiveness to the norms of the patriarchal society and did not have a single chance to realize herself outside of her home. The Yellow Wallpaper is the cry of a woman for equality and freedom. The narrators visible insanity is just the reflection of her dissent with the stifling conditions of life in a patriarchal society. She tries to break the dichotomy between herself and the rest of the world. She rebels against her spiritual and moral imprisonment. The faceless gaze of her society leads to a state close to that of madness, but this madness is no more insane than the norms and standards of life a woman must follow.